All about shoes

How to make a pair of shoes

2012-01-10T14:55:00.000-08:00

Shoes and Freudian Symbolism in advertising

2012-01-06T23:06:00.000-08:00

From a review of the literature concerning classical Freudian theory and the use of symbolism and its affects in advertising alcohol products the author considers the history of adverting sports shoes. With approximately 50% of all sports shoes sold to non-sports persons the marketing focus for athletic footwear has become a major image promotion within modern culture. The author has assumed direct marketing would include the use of Freudian symbols to help sell their product. According to authors who have reviewed Freud's work, humans harbour a primal mode of symbolic expression which is unconscious in nature and readily accessible during the dream state (Appignanesi & Zarate, 1999; Cameron, 1967; Jones, 1956; Lesser, 1962; McElroy, 1954; ; Ruth, 1990/91; Ruth & Mosatche, 1985; Ruth, Mosatche, & Kramer, 1989; Schonbar & Davitz,1960; Starer, 1955; Thouless, 1947). These involve primitive forms of associative recognition and comparison which were considered characteristic of the id and the instinctual core of the human psyche. The id being the division of the psyche associated with instinctual impulses and demands for immediate satisfaction of primitive needs and the latter the mind functioning as the centre of thought, feeling, and behaviour and consciously or unconsciously adjusting and relating the body to its social and physical environment. Freud believed these associative processes unconsciously classified, recognised, and identified objects in a crude manner. He further hypothesised certain environmental objects were symbolically related to human sexual anatomy and activity. This theorem now forms the basis of classic psychoanalytical theory. Unconscious recognition of male and female genitalia and the act of sexual intercourse may be sexually arousing and motivating although the individual may not be consciously aware of the object's sexual associations and symbolic content. Objects which were sexually symbolic were referred to as phallic and vaginal symbols. By themselves, these were not thought to be embedded within the unconscious but instead the associative processes which recognised the symbol as sexual, because its characteristics were sexual. He believed symbols were connected in prehistoric times by conceptual and linguistic identity. Hence the origins of symbolic expression were primarily sexual and genetic. These were universal and unlearned, transcending cultural differences. Freud did however accept culture and learning could have a secondary effect on symbolic processes. Positive associations have been established by experimental research and most authorities would now agree the association between geometric diagrams serving as abstract phallic and vaginal symbols and ratings of masculinity-femininity are valid for non-psychiatric adults and children. (Cameron, 1967; Jones, 1956; Lesser, 1962; McElroy, 1954; Ruth & Mosatche, 1985; Starer, 1955; Thouless, 1947). When experimental data showing positive effects for sexual symbols were interpreted from a psychological perspective, several researchers have cautioned that cultural stereotyping may provide a significant confound. Schoenbar and Davitz (1960) contended several sexual symbols were stereotyped according to prevailing cultural sex roles. This implied depending on which symbols were used what may be affected is not a subject's unconscious associations due to latent sexuality of Freudian symbols, but rather the subject's associations due to obvious male and female cultural connotations. The authors concluded that certain symbols may be more culturally stereotyped due to perceived sex-role connotations whereas others may be more culturally neutral, and perhaps universal as Freudian theory suggested. Barker (reported in Lesser, 1964 ) found where culture was not a variable, sexual designations did not differ from chance; where culture was a variable, sexual designation was in terms of cultural meaning, whether it agreed with or conflicted with the Freudian projection. Schonbar and Davitz (1960) found where culture was not a factor there was no clear cut definition of sexual meaning; where culture was a factor it was in general culture rather than form which determined the sexual meaning of the object. This was true for both the denotative and connotative designations of sexual meaning. The concept that cultural factors alone determine sexual meaning in a universal way can exist only to the extent the cultural elements were similar or identical for large numbers of people.

Freudian symbols and advertising liquor. Ruth & Mosatche, (1985) examined the effects on consumers of Freudian symbolism in the advertising of liquor. They found no main affect for sexual symbolism but sexual imagery and affect were significantly influenced in the presence of Freudian symbols in the adverts. These findings support the psychoanalytic assumption that phallic and vaginal symbols trigger unconscious recognition that is sexually arousing. Ruth (1990) suggested unconscious recognition of phallic and vaginal symbols in adverts for liquor may motivate an observer toward goal directed behaviour i.e. Freud symbols when paired with a product in an advert may motivate individuals to purchase that particular product. Results suggested that adverts for the same product may influence consumers differently when Freudian symbolism was present versus absent. The psychological theory would indicate the presence of phallic and vaginal symbols trigger an unconscious recognition due to their latent sexual characteristics. The authors held the belief the unconscious did not itself define objects or distinguish fine details but instead the genital symbols triggered an unconscious recognition of what was actually being symbolised, i.e. the male and female genitalia. Freud postulated the conscious awareness of genital sexuality was threatening for the ego and was therefore repressed in the unconscious. This could however still arose individuals without their awareness of the actual source of stimulation. The authors concluded observers were sexually aroused without being aware that the symbols in the advertisements were the agents responsible for their arousal. They believed this was supported by psychoanalytical theory. Key (1974) suggested the sexual arousal which stemmed from genital symbolism in the advertisement would, in turn, become associated with the specific product being advertised and motivated consumers purchasing behaviour.

History of footwear marketing. The advertising focus of shoe advertising has remained consistent over the last century with emphasis on quality of manufacture and fashion (Shoe World website, 2000) At the beginning of the 20th century most advertisements appeared in newspapers and magazines as simple sketches of attractive shoes accompanied with descriptive copy highlighting key features of the product. (Baren, 1998). Increased competition and new advancements in technology meant shoe companies developed more astute ways to attract their customers. Manufacturers and retailers worked to create recognisable identities for their products and by the middle of last century stores were developing their own styles, running large adverts in quality fashion magazines through Co-ops. Department stores would pay part of the advert in exchange for promotion. After World War II, changes due to urbanisation and developing suburbs meant new marketing strategies including direct consumer advertising throughout the media. New footwear adverts focused on products and lifestyles which was a radical change from the illustrations and characterisations. Nike, in the 1970s were the first to present new advertising campaigns with catchy logos that appeared in image laden print as well as on television. Soon popular personalities were paid to endorse their products in print and television commercials. As shoe firms launched increasingly attractive and complex campaigns, branding became the emphasis and in the 90's, advertising strove to turn brand names into household words. This strategy was paralleled in fashion marketing as consumers recognise branded labels as the all important feature rather than the old school qualities synonymous with style and fit. Vigorito and Curry (1998) described magazine pictures and adverts as carrying significant messages about cultural (material culture of capitalism) norms and values, including the norms of gender relations. The authors believed mass media was the lens through which people saw themselves. The benefit was people could aspire to models of masculinity and femininity but rarely attained the culturally idealised form of these. A convention of mass media was to elicit a positive audience response by presenting images which reinforced stereo-typical gender definitions. According to McKenzie (1997) the emergence of a sporting culture in the last 150 years has been the acceptance of physically fit athletic men and women as cultural and aesthetic ideals. The perfect body had become an object of desire and consequently most sports clothing were designed not just to be technically efficient and increase a competitor's effectiveness but also to reveal the body beneath it. From the first release of a keep fit, aerobic video in 1982 sports clothing became high fashion items with shoes to complete the outfit. Both media and cosmetic industries reinforced their belief in new health exercise and youth movement by promoting it as a market opportunity. Drab sweat suits became passé and were replaced by fashioned exercise gear, designed specifically to catch the eye in both gym and high street. Freedom of movement and fitness were reflected in contemporary popular music with loose fitting clothing the preferred style of the emerging 80's. Outfits were not complete unless worn with expensive sport shoes, usually endorsed by celebrities from professional sport.

Social Phenomena of Sports Shoes
Since the 70's sports shoes have become extremely popular and are now worn as fashionable footwear and not just for sport's purposes. This phenomenon is not new and was first recognised by Morris in The Naked Ape (1967) who postulated most shoe design innovations were, from antiquity, modifications of shoes designed for recreation such as athletics and dancing. Shoes contain a wealth of social messages both literally as well as symbolically and these are strongly affiliated with cultural rhythms (Hanna, 1985; Rossi, 1993). In terms of sales, baby boomers make up the bulk of the consumer market and one reason for the popularity of sports shoes has been this generation want to be fitter and healthier as they grow old. Although the relationship between young people's identities and their consumer patterns remains relatively uncharted. Miles, (1995) suggested at such a vulnerable time as coming of age one of the few things to make sense is their role as consumers. The author quoted the works of Willis (1990) who attempted an analysis of the relationship between young people’s culture and the state. He conceptualised young people's efforts to use the symbolic resources provided by the cultural industries as a means of creatively fashioning youth experience, identity and expression. The authors of this paper presented some of their findings from a project that dealt with youth, identity and consumption. As part of the information gathering consumers was asked what attracted them to a particular pair of trainers; or why did they think this particular pair was popular among their peers. The priority was for the consumer to discuss the role of training shoes had in their lives and that factors might influence their role. The meanings young people endowed consumer goods with varied according to a whole range of class, gender and ethnic influences. The authors believed consumption provided a language common to all which transcended perceived differences. Trainers were not viewed as simple shoes for sport but instead become a complex system of meanings associated with a specific brand. These according to Miles reflected a complex system of negotiated communal meanings between young consumers. It was not the specific qualities of the training shoe itself that appealed to young people but the meanings endowed in such shoes in peer context. Young people readily accept the value of consumption as a means of affirming status in the social group and as long as that social group was important to them then consumer trends inevitably played a significant role. Young people focused on their training shoes as an important means of establishing social hierarchies and self identity within their subcultures. This image is thought to transcend gender.

Discussion
Positive associations have been established by experimental research and most authorities would now agree the association between geometric diagrams serving as abstract phallic and vaginal symbols and ratings of masculinity-femininity are valid for non-psychiatric adults and children. From the literature reviewed there would seem to be general consensus of opinion from informed sources as to the validity of Freud's theories on sexual symbolism. Some authors have cautioned cultural stereotyping may provide a significant confound i.e. some symbols may be more culturally stereotyped due to perceived sex-role connotations whereas others may be more culturally neutral, and perhaps universal as Freudian theory suggested. Key (1974) (cited in Ruth & Mosatche, 1985) hypothesised sexual arousal which stemmed from genital symbolism in the advertisement which could become associated with the specific product being advertised and hence influence the consumers purchasing behaviour. Ruth & Mosatche, (1985) examined the effects on consumers of Freudian symbolism in the advertising of liquor. They found no main affect for sexual symbolism but sexual imagery and affect were significantly influenced in the presence of Freudian symbols in the adverts. These findings further supported the psychoanalytic assumption that phallic and vaginal symbols triggered unconscious recognition that was sexually arousing. From an historical review of the history of shoes advertising it would seem the traditions of advertisements have changed dramatically over the last century. Subsequent to the fitness boom of the early 70's and 80's advertising copy has concentrated less on quality of manufacture and fit and more towards brand labels and life style image. With the vast majority of sports shoes selling to non- sport's persons the whole issue of marketing would seem an appropriate area for inclusion of Freud's sexual symbolism. Modern preoccupation with physical fitness as an aesthetic ideal means the perfect body or the cultural sensitive image has appeal to a wide market range i.e. from the Baby Boomer generation to today's youth culture. From the literature reviewed direct marketing of sports shoes to niche markets did contain advertisements with and without Freudian symbolism. Examples of pictures with text (no Freudian symbolism), and life style imagery (with Freudian Symbolism) were regularly featured within adult magazines.

Conclusion
From the literature reviewed there would seem to be general consensus of opinion from informed sources to support the validity of Freud's theories on sexual symbolism. Researchers have examined the effects on consumers of Freudian symbolism in the advertising of liquor and concluded the presence of Freudian symbols in the adverts had significant influence. There are many similarities between advertising liquor and sports shoes i.e. not gender specific and advertisement copy prefers the promotion of life style rather than text based presentation on quality of manufacture.

References
Appignanesi, R. & Zarate, J.R., (1999) Introducing Freud (pp 65) Cambridge: Icon Books.
Baren, M., (1998) Victorian shopping (pp 96-104) London: Michael O'Mara Books Ltd.
Cameron, P., (1967) Confirmation of the Freudian psychosexual stages utilizing sexual symbolism Psychological Reports 21 33-39.
Groth-Marnat, G., (1990) Handbook of physchological assessment (2nd ed) (pp 319- 364) New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Hanna, A., (1985) Design in strude:explorations in shoe design Industrial Design Jan/Feb 40-45.
Jones, A., (1956) Sexual symbolism and the variables of sex and personality integration Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 53 187-190.
Lesser, K., (1962) Sexual symbols structured and unstructured Journal of Consulting Psychology 26:1 44-49.
Lesser, K., (1964) Cultural & Freudian dimensions of sexual symbols The Journal of Consulting Psychology 28 46-53.
McElroy, W.A., (1954) A sex difference in preference for shapes British Journal of Psychology 45 209-216.
McKenzie, J., (1997) The best in sportswear design (pp 20-23) London: BT Batsford.
Miles, S., (1995) Towards an understanding of the relationship between youth identities and consumer culture Youth and Policy 51 25-45.
Morris, D., (1967) The naked ape London: Cape.
Rossi, W. A., (1993) The sexlife of the foot and shoe Florida: Kreiger Publishing Co.
Ruth, W.J., (1990) Effects of Freudian sexual symbolism in advertising on self reported purchasing tendencies: A preliminary intraband anlaysis Psychological Reports 67: 3, Pt 2 1207-1210.
Ruth, W.J., (1991) Cultural stereotyping versus neutrality of Freudian sexual symbols: a brief survey Psychological Reports 68: 3, Pt 1 895-898.
Ruth, W. J., & Mosatche, H.S., (1985) A projecture assessment of the effects of Freudian sexual symbolism in liquor advertisements Psychological Reports 56 183-188.
Ruth, W. J., Mosatche, H.S., & Kramer, A., (1989) Freudian sexual symbolism: theoretical considerations and an empirical test in advertising Psychological Reports 64 1131-1139.
Schonbar, R.A., & Davitz, J.R., (1960) The connotative meaning of sexual symbols Journal of Consulting Physcology 24 483-487.
Shoeworld .
Starer, E., (1955) Cultural symbolism: a validity study Journal of Consulting Psychologists 19 453-454.
Thouless, R.H., (1947) General and social psychology (2ed) (pp 452) London : University Tutorial Press.
Vigorito, A.J., & Curry, T.J., (1998) Marketing masculinity: gender identity in popular magazines. Sex Roles 39 135-152.

Buying shoes: They made me do it

2012-01-06T22:58:00.000-08:00

And you just thought going into a shop and buying your favourite pair of shoes was something you did because you wanted to, and that decision, was totally under your conscious control. Well you could be right if you are very strong willed and live devoid of the media, but for most of us we are being manipulated on a grand scale and it starts off with advertising. The primary function of marketing is to move stock and whilst there a standards of advertising behaviour, these marshal gross and obvious misrepresentation, they do little to curb the subtle, subliminal messages hidden within adverts. Our brains subconsciously recognise primal images, things we might call symbols, the most obvious have to do with fertility and appropriation. These according, to Feud affect our attitudes and behaviours and designers of adverts have used these secret messages to sell their products from the beginning. This of course does not mean to say it is bad, nor are the commodities being advertised inferior or detrimental in any way. What it does represent is the science of marketing is extremely well developed and will deliberately target our human senses to achieve their objectives. Recently we conducted and experiment at the Department of Podiatry where a selection of shoe adverts from popular magazines aimed at the young and fashionable adult were analysed for symbolism. These were then divided into two types: those with subtle sexual symbolism and those without. Two groups of subjects were randomly selected and the first were shown adverts deemed to contain no symbolism; the other was allowed to examine the dirty pictures. Both groups were then asked to describe an innocent but ambiguous picture of a young couple. The first group gave a plausible explanation with no smuttiness; whereas the second group had more saucy reasons for the coupling. It would appear then images can radically affect our attitudes and the hope from a marketing perspective is this makes us want to buy more. Even supposing we do avoid the adverts getting to the shop can present other challenges. Most shoe shops display those products they are heavily promoting at the front of their premises. This instantly appeals to the spontaneous buyer with no real idea what they want other than an appeal to the eye. Buyers also beware if you detect a mild fragrance on the premises that is another ploy to get you to part with your money. Researchers at the Smell and Taste Treatment and Research Foundation in Chicago conducted experiments to discover the effects of fragrance on buyer’s habits. In a shop, which sold Nike–brand athletic shoes they divided potential shoppers into two rooms: one contained only filtered air and the other was scented with a fragrance. People in the scented room expressed more interest in the footgear and were eager to buy them at inflated prices. Shoppers in the unscented room were generally less interested and fewer purchases were made. Similar experiments have been reported in other retail outlets, casinos and museums. Results show people will stay on the premise longer, examine goods/exhibits more carefully and in the case of the casino, play more money. Fruity-floral scents appeal to both men and women whereas spicy scents were less likely to appeal to female shoppers. Now you know.

Manolo Blahnik

2012-01-01T02:34:00.001-08:00

If the shoe fits

2011-12-31T19:32:00.001-08:00

Everyone knows choosing the right shoes can be a hard decision. Common sense would indicate choosing shoes with wide heels would appear more beneficial than those with a narrow base. However resent research would indicate women are making the wrong choice and wide heeled shoes are more likely to do harm than good. It appears walking in wide-heeled shoes increases the pressure on the inside of the knee by 26%, while stilettos increase the pressure by 22%. Either way, according to experts, heels probably contribute to inconvenient knee pain. Not prolonged problems such as osteoarthrosis (arthritis) but more likely to be niggling soreness. The foot police have for centuries tried to connect shoes with sore feet. Shoes may have contributed by not fitting the foot well enough or being inadequate to support the foot during activity but in truth shoes have never been the primary cause of serious foot problems. Despite rhetoric to the contrary. Common sense would lead us to realise shoes need to be able to fit and protect the foot. Fashion on the other hand has a propensity to exaggerate and often styles reflect a san faire an attitude to convention. In other words some styles are deliberate in their attempt to display the impossible. Why is this so? Well according to fashion experts it has much to do with one upmanship. No matter how ludicrous it appears to the uninitiated, the cool costume exudes elitism. Take for example kids who wear very expensive trainers designed to protect the foot during periods of intense activity. Many will sport these with the laces deliberately left undone. Yes, it annoys the hell out of parents and teachers but also clearly sends a message shard by youth. "It will never happen to me.!" We all did it, or if not outwardly then we consciously suppressed the desire to do it. But through length of days comes understanding. I well recall when my own children, who followed the fashion dictates of the eighties and Bros. The blonde duo from London who spent a fortune on their credit cards before disappearing into rock star oblivion. The boys sported Beck's beer tops in their trainer laces. Needless to say I have to change my favourite tipple to accommodate the need for suitable beer tops to adorn my children (and their friends) shoes. Not new of course and fifties kids would be only too familiar with the penny loafer, where a lucky penny was included in the shoe design. My own favourite was Joe Cocker at Woodstock who had a silver star on his boots.

The Well Heeled

2011-12-30T16:45:00.001-08:00

Madame de Pompadour, (1721-64) was the advisor and paramour of Louis XV and had tiny feet. She wore distinctive heels which were named after her. The heels were high and curved into a small base. The style became very popular among the courtiers. For a short time French courtesans (high class call girls) bound their feet to catch the attention of the king. This corresponded to a time when Europeans were strongly influenced but the styles of China and Japan. The Chinese movement in Europe was eventually replaced by gothic. The foot binding was less severe and practiced by grown women. The foot was made smaller and these women wore tight high heeled shoes. The distinctive walk was considered extremely attractive to the French and Italian men. The origins of modern ballet come from this period of history. Empress Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1762) was the daughter of Peter the Great and Catherine I. She was a most powerful ruler, and some say a ruthless one too. However in her private quarters she always insisted on being attended by Arab boys dressed in ankle high boots with upturned toes and extravagant ribbon bows. Her successor Catherine .the Great.” was rather well known for entertaining rather bigger boys in her boudoire. Marie Antoinette (1755–93) was the Queen of France and married to Louis XVI. Unhappy, the queen surrounded herself with a dissolute clique and threw herself into a life of pleasure and extravagance. She had shoes for all her outfits and her servants would catalogue them to prevent the Queen from wearing the same pair. Since her highness would rarely, if ever, appear outside her palaces, the shoes were delicate works of art with no practical function. In October 1793 she was tried by a revolutionary tribunal and sentenced to death by guillotine. After the trial Marie Antoinette was taken to the "bathroom of the condemned" for the brief interval before her execution. She took time to prepare herself with care, in the spirit. and in the body and wore a white dress with black stockings and fine heeled shoes. It was usual for these condemned to death to wear a mourning dress by Marie Antoinette was an exception. The Prince of Wales (Edward VIII 1936) was a man with style much on his mind he popularised spectator shoes (or two tone shoes). These were popular in the US and were very much associated with the new music popular at the time, Jazz. Edward also broke with convention and wore suede shoes for semi-formal, town wear. Until this time suede shoes were considered the sign of a cad and bounder. Edward played golf and was of often photographed wearing his two tone brogues. These too became very popular and remain so to this day. When King George VI (1895-1952. Ruled 1936-1952). Suddenly found he had difficulty in walking up hill, his doctors diagnosed the problem as flat feet. Unfortunately the king's arches may have fallen but the man was suffering from severe intermittent claudication. The blood flow to his arteries was severely hampered due to his excessive smoking. The man poor suffered dreadful pains in his legs and died from lung cancer. The few times Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother was ever seen in public not wearing high heels was on a visit to South Africa in 1946. One of her shoe heels broke and the Princess Elizabeth had to gave her walking shoes to complete the trip. Seeming the Queen to be was very dismissive of her mother's behaviour and reported to have remarked 'How typical of mummy...' Princess Diana did break a Royal tradition whereas the Queen has always dressed perfectly; she often did so without care for popular fashion. Her clothes throughout have basically remained modified, fifties fashion. The shoes represent the top of the range and are available in retail chains where they sell in the millions to the middle aged, middle class women in their millions. Diana, rather like the Queen Mother was a dedicated follower of fashion and carried a large, expensive wardrobe of designer clothing. She had shoes for all occasions from low heeled loafers to high heeled shoes in gold and silver. Jimmy Choo made shoes for Princess Diana and on the day of her death her shoe maker had an appointment to deliver handmade shoes. The Princess only wore higher heeled shoes after her divorce from the Prince, for the primary reason she was obliged to wear flat heels so as not to tower over the future king.

Concealed Shoes

2011-12-30T02:57:00.001-08:00

The conundrum of shoes left hanging from telephone wires and their meaning has left many baffled but so too has shoes concealed in domiciles. American families have discovered a trove of old shoes hidden in house walls. Not quite an epidemic but none the less puzzling. During the Middle Ages it was commonplace to leave old shoes in roofs and attics for good luck and to ward off evil. More than a thousand concealment shoes, some dating back to the fourteenth century, have been reported in Western Europe alone. In North America concealment shoes have been reported in New England, but there have also been finds of buried shoes as far south as Virginia and far west as Missouri. Very rarely are pairs of shoes found, usually solo shoes, but many caches contain footwear from different people. Almost half the shoes concealed belonged to children with more female footwear found than males. Almost all shoes were well worn. Talisman is not restricted to shoes alone although they are commonplace. An old custom, where I come from, was to scatter coins under the carpet for good luck. Which of course meant as kids, every time mum and dad moved house we lifted the carpet. How many sceptics among us would deliberately walk under a ladder just to tempt fate. If I do I always have my fingers crossed, same goes for when you allow a pole to come between you and a friend, bad Karma, easily undone by saying “bread and butter”. First utterance on the first of the month always is “White rabbits” in our house and so it goes on. Back to shoes though. The penny loafer is a robust moccasin type shoe which had a luck penny caught in the snaffle bar just like any new purse given, as a gift should have a lucky penny within. A rare find reported recently in the US, concerned the demolition of an 18th century house where they discovered a baby's white, ankle-high shoe, some small wooden toys and some ears of corn. Since 1750 the house had undergone many additions and experts remain unclear whether the shoes were hidden at the time the chaise house was built or in a later renovation. All such shoe finds are reported now to the Northampton Shoe Museum in the UK and there they keep a register of concealed shoes. No-one has been able to explain why shoes have been used in this way. Some speculate the tradition stems from an ancient custom of killing someone then building the house over the grave, later in more enlightened days, shoes became a substitute for human sacrifice. Unlikely I think simply became shoe wearing in the very distant past was a minority sport and unless the person was fairly affluent then the chances were they went barefoot. More than likely shoes were selected because they reflected the personality of the wearer. By the Middle Ages, you still had to be pretty well off to have shoes and wearing them was status. They incorporate the spirit of a loved one and their shoe may have been kept as a form of Fen Sui. (or old shoey really). Shoe finds are usually reported near openings in the home e.g. doors, windows, chimneys etc. To the believer of the occult these are all places in the building that are vulnerable to evil. These finds indicate shoe concealment was widespread and long lasting yet it was not recorded in writing until references began to appear in mid-twentieth century archaeology literature in scholarly journals. Men being more secretive than women about such matters it fuels the theory hiding shoes was a male superstition, kept secret almost out of fear that telling about it would reduce its effectiveness. Another reason why this may not have been spoken off was it could have been construed in less enlightened times as a pagan ritual carrying severe punishment. The same superstition has been observed across the globe so for anyone out there involved in home renovation that involve removing walls especially around windows and doors, under roof rafters and behind old chimneys, be alert to the possibility of turning up concealment shoes. While most are found in eighteenth and nineteenth century homes, a find hidden as late as 1935 has been reported. If you are lucky and find concealed shoes tale a photograph as they lie because this information is as important as the shoes themselves. Then you might like to get in touch with the Northampton Shoe Museum who is documenting shoe finds.

Bast Shoes

2011-12-29T15:44:00.001-08:00

If you have the good fortune to have Russian friends or neighbours, next time you are visiting have a look for a lucky talisman many Russian families keep to fend off evil spirits. The old custom was to keep a keep a pair of bast shoes fastened to the door to fend off the evil eye. The bast shoes are basket weave, which is often miniature and filled with dried flowers. The custom dates back to the Dark Ages and of course no one is sure of its origins. One Australian often photographed wearing basket weave shoes was the former Prime Minister, Paul Keating. No idea whether he was fending off the evil eye or just wearing very comfortable shoes. How the bast came about was really through sandal making. The early Russian sandal makers would weave the sole using bast (the inner bark of the lime, larch, birch, willow and even juniper trees) and these were called Lapti. The bark was prepared by soaking a long time, and then straightened under a press. It took 3 or 4 saplings to make one pair with a double sole, these were fragile and might only last one week. Lapti were worn by the rural peasants. Bast was also used to weave shoes and these were less expensive than leather but basket not so rebust. Eventually shoemakers combined bast and leather straps to make longer lasting Lapti. From the 12-14th centuries, city dwellers wore shoes made from "cuts" of fabric, little pieces of smooth wool cloth and even of silk ribbon and these were called pleteshki (wicker/weaving). Depending on the traditions and ethnic region various weaving patterns were used (oblique, straight). The form of laptej (plural of lapti) also varied depending on locality: southern and Polesski lapti were open, while northern - "bakhili" - had the form of a narrow boot. The bast shoe was used all over European Russia, but not in Siberia. They were worn over leg wraps with the whole thing secured by straps. In the winter, furs and felt were used extensively. Felt boots were worn on the coldest, driest days. Melting snow or mud will ruin felt boots and make the wearer miserable with soaked, cold feet. But when the weather was cold and dry, felt boots remained impermeable, and provided warm footwear. Leather boots were also common. Archaeological finds support leather boots became fashionable in Russia about 14th century and were worn by young and old alike. Boots were worn by the Tatar and Mongol tribes, in the Middle Ages and shoemaking was a popular trade in Russian towns. Improved skills meant more robust boots became available by 16th century. They normally attached the wooden heel under the sole, the heel was covered by leather and the boots were worn knee-high and cut at an angle. Red boots were very popular and boots for men and women were cut alike with no allowance made for left and right. There is some evidence of specially made shoes to accommodate flat feet. (circa 16th century). By this time a multiplayer heel became fashionable in Moscow. Then, shoemakers used the heel (6-7cms) as an arch support which made walking labored. Later heel plates (crescent shaped heel protector) was nailed onto the heel. Later the calks were replaced by nail holes.

Read more at:
http://www.strangelove.net/~kieser/Russia/KWCfeet.html

Shoe metaphors

2011-12-29T15:32:00.000-08:00

As early hominids took to bipedal walking two million years before they developed the brain we now accept as our own, it gave them plenty time to think on their feet. A residual aspect of our primitive existence is the inclusion of reference to the foot and shoes into our common language. So the spectrum of life is subconsciously caught from the ‘patter of tiny feet’, heralding the beginning of life to the inevitable, ‘popping your clogs’ and ending up in ‘Boothill’, in our lexicon. All languages contain more metaphoric reference to the lower limb than any other part of the human body, including the naughty wobbly bits. The foot still fascinates the bipedal primate, no matter how sophisticated and superior the species becomes, we need to concede the sage words of Bernard Breslaw “You need feet”. Life is to do with getting from A to B and from beginning to the end that depends on feet. Lets start at the very beginning when we ‘take out first step’, sure footedness is something we learn and getting there can cause our parents some concerns but once we have our foot on the first rung of life’s ladder there is no stopping us. Of course there are rules and we need to be good foot soldiers. The quicker we learn to control the Id (ego), then the more likely we become productive members of the tribe. To integrate we need to do the leg work and must be mindful not to lose our footing on the way. Trying to keep our foot out of our mouths can be a challenge at times, especially when young and impetuous, but through length of days and treading the hard road, comes understanding and the ability to listen more than talk. No one can do more harm to ourselves in life than, ourselves especially when we put our foot in it and trip over our own feet. Pick your steps wisely, is good advice. Some succeed by standing on others’ toes, but a good footnote is to remember the people you step on, on the way up the ladder, will be waiting to trip you up when you inevitably come tumbling back down. A good idea is to foot the bill and take the responsibility for your own mistakes. In life’s journey when you recognise others are taking advantage of your good nature you need to learn to say no, and put your foot down. Laying our troubles at the feet of others is the tactic of a heel. The primary function of the species is to leave our footprints in the sands of time. Hence the circle of life continues as our offspring follow in our footsteps. But let us not forget the pathway of life may not always be rosy and trouble free and hence the need to get footloose once in a while.

Pointed toed shoes; Is it a sign?

2011-12-29T15:27:00.000-08:00

The pointed shoe for women continues to enjoy vogue in women’s fashion but has not come without controversy. The foot/shoe police were quick to vocalise their condemnation with forecasts of foot doom and deformity to all who dare wear them. Problem is there is no evidence to support these claims. Certainly discomfort may result when anyone wears tighter clothing that is comfortable. Hazards do also await the foot challenged who squeeze their feet into a triangular shaped shoes smaller than their feet, but as a shoe design, pointed shoes do not present real harm to feet. Provided feet and shoes are physically compatible and worn for short periods then no real harm can come to the wearer.

So why do pointed shoes come in for such criticism?
As a podologist I study the foot in health as well as disease and have become fascinated with the psycho-social aspects of shoe design. There are only seven basic shoe types and fashion is made from the innumerable combinations of these styles. The origins of pointed shoes are quite simple to locate and were worn in biblical times. Historians believe the style then had more to do with poor shoemaking than style per se but people who wore peaked sandals were considered ‘free spirited’. The fashion for long toed shoes became an obsession for men in the Middle Ages and lasted 400 years. For just under half a millennium, the size of men's shoes got longer and longer until they were 24 inches longer than the foot. Poulaines or beaks were thought to be used as sex toys in courtly love and have been associated with promiscuity ever since. As a style it did not reappear until 1960s with the sexual revolution. Winkle pickers along with the stiletto heels were loved by the youth of the day and met a tirade of warnings and foreboding from the (medical) establishment. Today there is no epidemiological evidence to show the Bulge (sixties generation) have more deformed feet because of their fleeting association with pointed shoes.

So why the fuss?
The medicalisation of feet and shoes is a metaphor which represents a moral backlash against promiscuity. Pointed shoe styles and high heels have become stereotypically associated with Jezebels, and appear to many misogynists as sartorial pornography. What made this all the more real was the recent pointed shoe fashion was a female phenomenon, whereas in the sixties, it affected both genders. Now power dressing for women has arrived.

High heels, knee torque and obesity: The real deal

2011-12-28T15:43:00.000-08:00

Research from Oxford University researchers under the direction of Oxford University public-health studies professor Ray Fitzpatrick was published in the Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health in the latter part of 2003. The findings supported there was no evidence of risk that glamour-gal footwear harmed feminine knees. The reverse may be true, but conditions apply.

"A consistent finding in the analysis was a reduced risk of osteoarthritis in association with regular high-heel usage," says the report, published this week. The researchers noted, "It is very unlikely that prolonged wearing of high-heeled shoes represents a risk factor."

This conclusion treads heavily on conventional medical wisdom of the last 250 years or so, which has blamed high heels for sore backs, corns, sprained ankles, abnormal gait, ingrown toenails, shortened calf muscles and hammertoe. Historically this is a misogynistic viewpoint which has enjoyed its greatest vogue at times when women enter the workforce.

The Yale University School of Medicine Foot and Ankle Service recommend half-inch heels, while the podiatric association calls high heels "biomechanically and orthopedically unsound."

Studies have shown 2/3rds of women wear shoes smaller in volume than their anatomical foot. Women with tighter fits tend to suffer from friction, which accounts for the callous and bunions, but not in every case.

The foot police continue to promulgate the doom and despondency myth with relatively little evidence to support it, but well meant none the less. Orthopods and podiatrists tend to see a small skewed population and obviously conditions apply. Over the last five years or so there have been several similar but small studies, all of which have come to different conclusions.

The Harvard Medical School studies measured “knee torque" of high-heel wearers. Surprisingly enough the torque was about 22% and they linked it to the cause of knee arthritis. Researchers later extended the study to include sensible heels and found the torque on the knee measured 25%. Shocked and stunned they dismissed the evil high heel theory and clung instead to cause and effect. This was immediately refuted by the British Arthritic Society who was keen to reassure heels heights were only contributory in those people prone to osteoarthritis.

Another study from Medical College of Georgia found that older women lost their balance 12 percent of the time when they wore high heels. Similar works have been conducted in Australia by Stephen Lord and Hylton Menz over in Sydney and there may be more credibility here than an association with arthritis. A new trend reported relates to toe amputation as a fashion accessory. Whilst this is not new the frequency would appear to support a new phenomenon and orthopedists and surgical podiatrists have been asked to undertake elective cosmetic surgery in such numbers as to cause bioethical dilemmas.

"High heels have an allure that men may appreciate, but cannot fully understand."

As Marilyn Monroe said “I don’t know what man invented them but all women should be grateful.”

There was an even more pronounced link between regular dancing in three-inch heels and a reduced risk of knee problems. The researchers described this finding as "surprising", but said that they would not expect a larger-scale study to overturn their findings.

"Our data suggest that future research in relation to risk and prevention might usefully focus on the age at which people first undergo excessive weight gain and whether or not this gain is sustained." Certainly, becoming overweight before the age of 40 was strongly linked - with a 36-fold increase in risk - with arthritis of the knee. Researchers noted: "Most of the women had been exposed to high-heeled shoes over the years. Nevertheless, a consistent finding was a reduced risk of osteoarthritis of the knee."

Don't fret about shoes — worry about weight, they counseled. Obesity at any age is "the single most preventable risk factor," said Oxford's Mr. Fitzpatrick, who said those who were overweight by 40 pounds had 36 times the risk of developing arthritis in the knee.

Alan Jones Pop Artist

2011-12-28T15:23:00.000-08:00

Born in Southampton, England in 1937, Alan Jones studied painting and lithography at Horsley College of Art before becoming a graduate from the Royal College of Art in 1959. He became part of the Pop Art movement and took his inspiration from the way people interacted. He was fascinated with the fusion of male and female qualities. Mail order catalogues and fetish magazines of the 40s and 50s provided him with ideas and he was one of the first artists to use commercial imagery in his paintings. Jones was truly transfixed by feet and legs which prominently feature in his works. The concept of real and false fascinated the artist as he experimented with sculpture and although he soon returned to painting many experts believe his paintings take on sculpture quality in two dimensions. Colour is also important to the artist and he mostly associates colour with gender; black and red are masculine, yellow feminine. He also uses hues to add emotional or aesthetic density to his images. Symbolism, a la Freud and Jung play key roles in many of his works with crumpled trilby or tensed tie definite male attributes. He paints modern myths of sexual identity with humour and allusion, focusing on the mystery of sex rather than attempting to explain it. His common themes of legs and high-heeled shoes represent the entire body and the artist frequently juxtaposes himself with his fantasies in a collage style, like a family album. Alan Jones could be controversial, no more so than his fibreglass female mannequins, forged as everyday furniture like tables and chairs. They were object d’art and not for functional use but did raise the ire of feminists concerned at the implied implication. Ironically these sculptures promoted more debate as to the liberated role of women more than their stereotypical constraints of misogyny. He used cut a way to reveal the mechanics beneath the outer skin. Common in anatomical graphics Jones used to display the intimate apparel and beyond. Fascinating depth the see through perspective leaves the viewer to see all.

Reference
The pocket library of art: Alan Jones London: Brockhampton Press 1997

Big Shoes

2011-12-27T15:32:00.001-08:00

When Danny Eskenazi was growing up in Seattle, USA, he often visited his grandfather's shoe store. For nearly 30 years, Isaac Eskenazi kept a pair of giant boots in the window. The shoes belonged to Robert Wadlow, an 8-foot-11-inch tall man who travelled on the lecture circuit in the 1930s and stopped in Seattle at the Pantages Theater. Wadlow suffered acromegaly and was listed in the Guinness Book of Records as a giant. Acromegaly is a condition caused by increased secretion of growth hormone after normal growth has been completed and occurs in adults. When excessive secretion of growth hormone occurs in children before normal growth has been completed, it causes gigantism rather than acromegaly. The cause of the increased hormone secretion is usually a benign pituitary tumour. The pituitary gland, which is located at the base of the brain, controls the production and release of several different hormones. There are no known risk factors other than prior history of a pituitary tumour. Acromegaly occurs in 6 out of 100,000 people. You may recall Ian Thrope, the Australian swimmer was accused of taking hormonal supplements which were thought to increase the size of his feet. There was no substance to the accusation and “the Torpedo” just was a big laddie. His tight fitting swim suit made his bits look bigger. Anyway back to Robert Wadlow, his life was tragically short and he died very young aged 22. His demise was brought on by an infected foot blister, so there is a warning to us all. Maybe his shoes were too small for him, in any event when Isaac Eskenazi relocated his store in the 1960s; big Wadlow’s boots mysteriously disappeared. Young Danny has spent his life in search of the Holy Grail of Giant Shoes. To this day, he continues to look and there is even a $1,000 (US) reward for the return of Wadlow's boots. Meantime Danny has acquired a collection of giant shoes which in 1997, he generously donated to the new Giant Shoe Museum (Old Seattle Paperworks). A particular unique feature about this collection is it appears in a coin-op museum. For a dollar's worth of quarters you can see three of the peep shoe exhibits. The museum is sponsored by the Society for the Preservation of Oversize Footwear which is one of Seattle's most exclusive clubs. Makes you wonder what these people do for a life. Most of the exhibits are too large for anyone to have worn and likely were made as displays for shoe manufacturers. Now if you are in Cambridge Street, Perth, Western Australia you might like to visit the premises of Perth Surgical Shoemakers & Wembley Shoes. Not just because they are very nice people, that is taken for granted, but because there is on display the biggest shoe in Australia. According to the Guinness Book of Records the world’s largest shoe was made by Zahit Okurlar. It measured 3.12m. (10-ft. 2.8-in.) long, 1.05m. (3-ft. 5.5-in.) wide, and 1.23m. (4-ft. 0.8-in.) high. The shoe was exhibited at the Konya International Shoe Fair. Okurlar started making the shoe in August 1999, creating a mould made from foam, wood-dust, and gypsum glue, modelled from a size 41 shoe. The upper part of the shoe was stuck to the leather sole before being hand-sewn. A five-meter (16-ft. 6-in.) long shoelace was used. Okurlar used three complete cow hides to make the sole and had to knock down a wall of his third floor workshop to winch the shoe down.

Red Shoes

2011-12-27T15:27:00.000-08:00

In the ancient world all dye stuffs were natural. Some were easily attainable whilst others were very rare or time consuming and difficult to produce. Dyestuffs were traded as commodities. The most difficult colour to achieve was purple (Tyrian Purple – Phoencians of Tyre) and was made from shellfish. In the ancient world the premium colours were purple, blue and bright shades of red. Wearing exotic and rare items became a proclamation of status and at times when greater wealth was abroad, sumptuary laws were passed to restrict colours to social rank. Throughout modern history a growing middle class would flaunt these laws by slashing their outer clothing to reveal banned materials and colours as underclothing. Eventually the importance of colour lost its status sufficiently now we hardly give it thought. The cardinals selecting the new pope behind the closed doors of the Sistine Chapel sported red leather shoes. No one appears to know the exact origins of red papal shoes although but they became very popular in the 17th & 18th Century. The red shoes are thought to be based upon imperial red/purple shoes. Exclusive rights to wear imperial "purple" belonged to the emperors long before the origins of Christianity but as the Christian faith grew, emperors did bestow many privileges upon the Popes including the right to wear imperial insignia and colours about their dress. (Donation of Constantine 750-800). At first all popes wore black sandals then circa 1290, they took to wearing socks with their thongs. Some socks were violet (Hyacinth colour), the trendy liturgical colour of the time but as the years passed red socks became common. The red socks were not symbolic but instead a natural consequence of rich imported luxury of all kind. By the time of Nicolas V (15th century), shoes had replaced sandals and the only difference between the Pope and his bishops was the former had the right to have a cross on their shoes. This relates to kissing the Pope’s feet as a mark of respect and refers to foot washing. According to early renaissance paintings the elite feet of the Vatican were encased in beautiful red shoes. High ecclesiastics distanced themselves from the common masses by conspicuous refinement and extravagant ornamentation. Although priests occupied an important position in ancient societies, they almost invariably performed their offices, barefoot. This was thought to have been an outward and visible sign of their inward, humility and purity. Clerical sandals were simple and devoid of any fashion and symbolised the cleric's separation from worldly vanities. With the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the barbarian invasions, craftsmanship declined in Europe. Common people went barefoot or wore rough clogs. During the Dark Ages shoes were crude protection with little emphasis given to fashion. "Sovereign's law" promulgated by Charlemagne (742-814 AD) required clerics to wear sandals when celebrating mass. Many medieval priests and Franciscan monks wore wooden sandals as a sign of disregard for material luxury. On pilgrimages many went barefoot out of choice to do penance for their sins, whilst others wore sandals as a token gesture. The origins of sexy red shoes probably mirror the ecclesiastical rise and would be cheekily worn by the ladies of the day. This had as much to do with emerging fashion and availability of sumptuous clothing as it did with irreverence. However as condemnation of women and marginalization of courtesans progressed, Jezebel shoes would become stereotypical and eventually glorified in 20th century Hollywood. When a Pope dies, the Pontiff’s body lies in state dressed in his funeral garments, which consist of a white cassock, scarlet chasuble (long sleeveless liturgical vestment) and red silk shoes. Seems to be some confusion however as to whether Pope John Paul II wore red shoes or brown shoes. Many believe he broke with the tradition and wore brown shoes given to him by a friend as a Christmas present. By this action it is thought he was expressing his identity with common people, so typical of the man.

If the shoe fits....

2011-12-27T15:22:00.001-08:00

Everyone knows choosing the right shoes can be a hard decision. Common sense would indicate choosing shoes with wide heels would appear more beneficial than those with a narrow base. However resent research would indicate women are making the wrong choice and wide heeled shoes are more likely to do harm than good. It appears walking in wide-heeled shoes increases the pressure on the inside of the knee by 26%, while stilettos increase the pressure by 22%. Either way, according to experts, heels probably contribute to inconvenient knee pain. Not prolonged problems such as osteoarthrosis (arthritis) but more likely to be niggling soreness. The foot police have for centuries tried to connect shoes with sore feet. Shoes may have contributed by not fitting the foot well enough or being inadequate to support the foot during activity but in truth shoes have never been the primary cause of serious foot problems. Despite the rhetoric to the contrary. Common sense would lead us to realise shoes need to be able to fit and protect the foot. Fashion on the other hand has a propensity to exaggerate and often styles reflect a san faire an attitude to convention. In other words some styles are deliberate in their attempt to display the impossible. Why is this so? Well according to fashion experts it has much to do with one upmanship. No matter how ludicrous it appears to the uninitiated, the cool costume exudes elitism. Take for example kids who wear very expensive trainers designed to protect the foot during periods of intense activity. Many will sport these with the laces deliberately left undone. Yes, it annoys the hell out of parents and teachers but also clearly sends a message shard by youth. "It will never happen to me.!" We all did it, or if not outwardly then we consciously suppressed the desire to do it. But through length of days comes understanding. I well recall when my own children, who followed the fashion dictates of the eighties and Bros. The blonde duo from London who spent a fortune on their credit cards before disappearing into rock star oblivion. The boys sported Beck's beer tops in their trainer laces. Needless to say I have to change my favourite tipple to accommodate the need for suitable beer tops to adorn my children (and their friends) shoes. Not new of course and fifties kids would be only too familiar with the penny loafer, where a lucky penny was included in the shoe design. My own favourite was Joe Cocker at Woodstock who had a silverstar on his boots.

Shoe Buckles: A brief history

2011-12-26T19:46:00.000-08:00

At the time of the American War of Independence men wore shoe buckles. Often these remain the only surviving artifact of the shoe when buried in the ground for years. Now shoe buckle collections have become highly prized by collectors but also are used by historians to date military campsites and battlefields. Distinctive workmanship, even in military style can pin point origin of source. The majority of buckles were made in England and exported to the colonies. Buckles became coveted trophies of manliness and were displayed with pride as they were handed down through families. Sometimes made in semi precious metals they were often displayed on belts, like horse brasses. Later these were worn around the waste. The belt buckle developed from the large shoe buckle and incorporated military design. These were impractical for working drovers but eventually found a prominent place in modern cowboy outfit. The larger than life style was popularised by the celluloid heroes of early Hollywood. Manufacturers eagerly catered for the growing vogue by producing fancy sterling and gold buckles for both men and women. The fashion zenith for glamorous belt and shoe buckles was in the 1930s. Shoe buckles were originally worn by monks in the Dark Ages, but flamboyant cavaliers looked to wear ostentatious footwear they rediscovered the buckle. Sartorially this starkly contrasted with Puritans wore plain clothes including footwear without decoration. The plain look lasted for the duration of Oliver Cromwell reign but a resurgence of finery came during the Restoration brought the buckle back into fashion. Initially shoe roses replaced these, about 1675. Made of the finest materials, trimmed with gold lace, pearls and spangles, roses grew to enormous proportions. Finally the buckle returned and although sober by comparison these were made from the metal titania and soon became the symbol of wealth. The shoes of men of distinction of the 18th century were found on the end of tights, during this time shoe jewellery reached its zenith. The demand for shoe buckles was enormous and the industry was centred on Birmingham, England, where it employed thousands. Dandies openly boasted of owning fifty or more different types of buckles. Silver or gold gilt buckles were popular everyday wear with bejellewed fasteners kept for special occasions. Jewelers and shoemakers were challenged to keep up with demands for novelty designs. Street robberies were common and many men took to wearing costume jeweled buckles. Marconis continued to sport precious metal trimmed buckles and had their heels fitted with metal tips to give an audible click as they fearlessly strolled along the cobbled streets. The demise of the buckle for men coincided with the French Revolution when conservative laces (shoe string) replaced ostentatious buckles, bows and roses. Ironically lacing shoes had been considered too effeminate for the macho, mincing Dandies and Macaronis but now the style became ubiquitous because to wear anything else might suggest privilege. Meantime women's shoes which had been simple heelless slippers made from sumptuous materials began to be decorated with semi precious stones and buckles.

References
Ball JD Costume Jewelers: The golden age of design
Western Buckles (http://www.buckles.com/)
Calver & Bolton History Written with Pick and Shovel.
Grimms J L Archaeological Investigation of Fort Ligonier Fort Ligonier Association, Ligonier, PA 15658 (724) 238-9701.
Neuman and Kravic Collector’s Illustrated Encyclopedia of the American Revolution.
Western Buckles (http://www.buckles.com/)
Wright T 1922 The romance of the shoe being the history of shoemaking London: Farncombe & Sons.

Shoes and sex

2011-12-26T19:28:00.001-08:00

“If ever a shoe style represented a symbol of social status then the long toed shoe of the Middle Ages remains unsurpassed. The fashion lasted for four centuries, unbroken.”

Introduction
Footwear throughout history has supplied a social ritual, the knowledge of which indicated, breeding and status. The wealthy classes of the Middle Ages indulged their superiority by wearing sumptuous clothing and shoes became symbols, serving to indicate standards of conduct as well as emotional states. During the High Middle Ages fashion took a bizarre turn and the glitterati of European courts wore poulaines or, very long toed shoes. As the centuries passed, men’s footwear grew longer and longer until they were 24” longer than the feet they protected. Normal walking was impossible and young dandies stiffened their peaks with moss and grass ensuring the true purpose of the shoe dildos was obvious. Despite the fashion’s longevity no rational explanation has ever been proffered to explain the phenomenon. In the spirit of zeitgeist the author attempts to now fill that void. The fashion began at the same time the first Crusaders were returning from the Holy Lands (The First Crusade, 1095–99).

Chivalry
As European society emerged from the Dark Ages, high culture prevailed in the Empire of Islam which extended from India to Spain. When the two cultures clashed Knights were surprisingly impressed by the sophistication of the mystic culture of the Sufis. For centuries the Sufis developed a mystical path of love where the sensual and the spiritual came bonded in an ecstatic way. It was never clear whether the poet was praising a human beloved or the divine beloved or one shining through the other. Modern scholars acknowledge the influence of Islam formed the basis for European Chivalry and Courtly Love. The conventions of courtly love taught young men to sublimate their desires and channel their energies into socially useful behaviour. To do otherwise might have threatened social stability especially at a time when feudal lords and knights were engaged in the Crusades. For people to break these taboos only reinforces the strength and drive for sexual pleasure which transcend any moral precept.

Courtly Love
Courtly love flourished in the early 12th century during the cultural renaissance that followed the first Crusades. It involved the passionate devotion of lover and loved one. The relationship was always illicit i.e. the woman was the wife of another, often a lord or patron and its consummation was virtually impossible. The high minded ideas about romance spread when troubadours sang openly of love’s joys and heartbreaks in daringly personalised terms, extolling the ennobling effects of the lover’s’ selfless devotion. The troubadours (the term is derived from the Arabic word 'tare', meaning musical enchantment) promoted a love yearned for, and at times rewarded by, the solace of every delight of the beloved except physical possession by intercourse. Courts of Love were held to publicise the rules of love and the ladies who presided at the courts taught society about the new way to live and love.

Domnei & Donnoi
The aristocrats of Provencal idealized got married for political reasons but upheld two "intimate ceremonies" as a form of courtship. Domnei or woman worship was a custom where the would-be suitor gazed on the partly or fully undressed lady; and Donnoi was when the couple lay naked together sometimes separated by a pillow. The test was the lover had to prove his depth of love by avoiding intercourse. This was sensual, carnal and openly encouraged the delights of kissing and embracing. The sight of a beloved’s nudity and the touching of her body provoked desire. Under these circumstances it would be no stretch of the imagination to work out what gainful employ a 24" long extension on the foot might be put towards. Indeed at a public banquet an average sized adult male with two 24 " long extensions on his feet could keep three women perfectly happy under the table, leaving his hands free to enjoy a health repast.

Long Toed Shoes

The fashion lasted four centuries and although it ebbed and waned in that time, the length of shoes got longer until the style was abruptly halted in the early 15th century. Through its zenith, shoe length was subject to papal condemnation as well as sumptuary laws which always restricted excesses to the less wealthy. Despite this the fashion remained even although it caused men to walk unnaturally and ungainly with a wide based, high stepping gait. A particular fad of the young nobles who attended the court of William Rufus was to wear shoes with long tapering points like scorpions’ tails. Orderic Vitalis was an English born monk who spent the whole of his religious life in the Norman Abbey of Evroul and recorded much of the social events of his time and according recorded a fool in the court called Robert was the first to stuff the points of his shoes with flax so they could be curled back in the form of a ram’s horn. He was subsequently given the ribald nickname Cornadus, meaning ‘Horner” or Horny.

Symptoms of Tertiary Syphilis
The same pattern of movement is seen in tabes dorsalis, a sequestrate of tertiary syphilis where spirochetes destroys the central nervous system. Syphilitic myelopathy is a disorder characterized by muscle weakness and abnormal sensations caused by untreated syphilis infections. Loss of proprioception causes coordination difficulties which contribute to problems of wide based walking. The same infection causes widespread damage to the nerves of the brain and results in personality changes, mood changes, hyperactive reflexes, abnormal mental function including hallucinations and delusions, decreased intellectual functioning, and speech changes. This is known as General paralysis of the insane and typically begins about 15-20 years after the original syphilis infection.
The Court Jester

"When the king was a syphilitic semi-imbecile, a jester even more grotesque may have served as a useful stage prop, disarming criticism by making the king look more nearly normal by comparison and thus making the make-believe of kingship possible."

(Willeford, 1969 p156).

Syphilis was long been thought to be a disease introduced to Europe in the 15th century (carried by Christopher Columbus’s crew). Hence historians have had no reason to seek evidence of its existence prior to this date. Recent discoveries of human remains in Hull, England, have revealed syphilitic pitting and the bones have these have been carbon dated to the 11th century. The presence of the pox and the knowledge of its transmission would give reason to influence sexual practices.
Safe sex
The urge to prevent pregnancy was actively and creatively pursued since Onan spilled his seed (Genesis). Pre modern peoples of Europe regulated family size and women in antiquity had significant control over their reproductive lives. From ancient times a foreign object placed in the uterus was thought to prevented pregnancy and in periods when marriage was delayed it has been assumed that masturbation was an outlet. Until the Middle Ages women practiced birth control with little interference from religious or civil authorities. In courtly love shoe shaped dildos may have been used as sex toys and/or a means of physical contraception used after intercourse. The long shoe style may also have provided protection from sexually transmitted disease and or masked the symptoms. In a similar manner in Oriental Society, sexualisation of the Lotus Foot may have been for the same reasons.
Foot sex
The association between feet and sex is found no clearer than in the Orient. The origins of foot binding are clouded although aesthetic appreciation of the small foot was present in early Chinese literature. Documentation of the foot binding starts from the 10th Century. Maintaining the Lotus foot (3” long) ensured hypersensitivity of the foot arch and forced the child to walk with small steps. Deportment was important and thought to increase the labial folds and muscle tone of the pelvic floors. The vagina was tight for life and the soles of the feet became second vaginas. Pedal sex was contemporary in the ancient world.

But what global event would cause two diverse societies separated by thousands of miles and eons of culture to adopt such a curious preoccupation with feet and sex? It had to be disease.

Fact or fantasy
What I have just recounted is conjecture, and in the absence of written evidence must remain so. Whether shoes became sex toys by necessity and sexualisation of the foot, a focus for safe sex, will never be clear. However something strange did happened in the 11th century and this has influenced our sexual behaviours to date. As an anthropologist/sociologist who studies the foot in health and disease, I could not finish this presentation without a foot note. The end of the fashion for long toed shoes came abruptly in the early 15th century. From contemporary paintings, the only evidence available, the style was quickly replaced by shoes which were so broad across the ball if the foot as to boast of individual compartments for each toe. The podiatrist’s delight was called Bears Paws. The same style is seen today in post surgical moon boots used to support and protect injured tissue. One other outcome of neurosyphilis is Charcot foot where trophic ulceration decimates the sole of the foot making walking in anything other than shoe boxes, impossible. By the 16C a new class of courtiers had emerged and deportment took on social significance where appearance reflected moral attitudes. Clothing became more rigid, to impose a standard form.

10,000 Years of Shoes: The Photographs of Brian Lanker

2011-12-03T03:41:00.001-08:00

"10,000 Years of Shoes: The Photographs of Brian Lanker" is edited by Jon Erlandson and Sarah McClure is produced by the Museum of Natural and Cultural History at the University of Orego and explores the form, function, history and diversity of shoes. The book is illustrated through out by Pulitzer Prize winning photojournalist, Brian Lanker . The book connects the museum's famed collection of 10,000-year-old sagebrush bark sandals with the innovations in running shoes developed by Bill Bowerman, Phil Knight and Nike. The book is written for a general audience and includes contributions from Thomas Connolly (director of archaeological research at the museum), Jon M Erlandson (museum director) , Petr Hlavacek (professor of shoe technology at Tomas Bata University in the Czech Republic) and Kenny Moore (Olympian). Currently the book can be purchased at Past and Presents, at the museum's store, for $34.99. In January, the book will be made available for wider distribution.

News on Shoes

2011-11-19T14:49:00.001-08:00

Shoes for Show: the Sculptural Art of High Heels

2011-10-24T03:55:00.000-07:00

A new exhibition Shoes for Show: the Sculptural Art of High Heels, opens soon in London. The exhibition features a display of the crazy, beautiful and downright unwearable shoes from past to present . The exhibition's curator, Shonagh Marshall says ‘shoes can blur the boundary between art and fashion.’ On display will be Beyonce's 'medieval armour' shoes (as worn in the video, Run the World (Girls) which were created by Gareth Pugh. Also in the exhibition is a pair of gold platform sandals designed by Rupert Sanderson for Verdi's Aida at the Royal Opera House; there too is Christian Louboutin’s en pointe Swarovski-encrusted ballet stilettos; as well as a pair of Turkish bath shoes with wooden platform soles (dating from 1890). The clogs are inlaid with mother of pearl embroidery. By far the oldest exhibit is on loan from the Northampton museum's shoe collection. The "prize shoe" dates to the Great Exhibition of 1851 and is a finely embroidered shoe with four-inch heel and were made to showcase the talent of its anonymous maker rather than actually be worn.

Shoes for Show: the Sculptural Art of High Heels is on at the Loading Bay, 91 Brick Lane, London, E1, from 4 – 8 November.

2011 Nike MAG: Charity Auction

2011-09-09T00:10:00.000-07:00

Who could forget Marty Mcfly (Michael J. Fox ) in Back To The Future II with his light up kicks with their self locking lace system. Millions of fans of the movie and sneakerheads have been waiting with bated breath for Nike to produce these commercially. They even started an on-line petition which has now come to fruition and the shoes called Marty McFly Hyperdunks, are available, albeit on limited edition. The new shoes are not quite the same as the originals (which might disappoint some), but they do look very similar. The colourway of the air-pressurized auto-lacing mechanised shoes is as the originals with a grey base, speckled outsole, light blue highlights and the number 2015 stamped on the tongue. The subtle blue netting sets these apart from the other Hyperdunks and they demonstrate the new buzz in the footwear industy which is enduring and lightweight materials. Nike designer, Tinker Hatfield (shoe designer) and footwear innovator Tiffany Beers have recreated the footwear legend with the 2011 Nike MAG. These feature an electroluminescent outsole, space-age materials and have a rechargeable internal battery which is good for 3,000 hours. The kicks are not recommended for playing sports, but they will make for good blue chip investments. Previously Nike did patent a self lacing apparatus but that trechnology is still in the future. However and the new hyerdunks are supposed to be ‘as good as it gets’. The shoes have been endorsed by Kobe Bryant. Which is a strange choice since Bryant is not the most popular fellow in basketball and certainly no match for Michael Jordan. I am sure the lightweight kicks will lift him above all that. On Thursday the company released 1500 pairs for auction on eBay (150 pairs per day) and the money raised will go to the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's disease research.

God save my shoes

2011-09-01T17:01:00.001-07:00

Director: Julie Benasra

The documentary explores the complex and often fascinating world of women and their relationship to their footwear. The originall idea came from for the film’s producer Thierry Daher ( “Just For Kicks” a history of sneakers through hip hop) who thought a psycho-social profile of woemn and their shoes would also be interesting. Thierry invited Julie to direct it and she travelled the world interviewing shoe lovers, designers and experts (but not me ?). On screen interviews include Elizabeth Semmelhak (curator at the Bata Museum), shoe designer, Christian Louboutin, shoe collector, Beth Shak, and burlesque dancer Dita Von Teese, among others. Interesting insight into the shoe psychology.

Just for kicks Documentary

2011-08-31T07:42:00.001-07:00

Shoe Auction for Peace

2011-08-22T07:40:00.001-07:00

Peter Gray drew international media attention when he threw his shoes at the former Australian Prime Minister, John Howard during Q&A (ABC) last year. He threw the shoes to protest Australia's decision to join the US led invasion of Iraq which overthrew the repressive regime of Saddam Hussein.

Sadly, not long after, Peter Gray died after a long battle with cancer. Before his death he asked his shoes be auctioned to raise money for the International Committee for the Red Cross and its work in Iraq. Former Prime Minister Howard was saddened to hear of Peter’s passing and he has endorsed the proposal to sell the shoes for charity.

The auction opens on Friday. For more informatiuon call the Red Cross on 1800 811 700.

Vivienne Westwood Shoes, An Exhibition: 1973 – 2011: On tour

2011-05-21T03:29:00.000-07:00

The "Vivienne Westwood Shoes, An Exhibition: 1973 – 2011" was launched in London, where it met a huge success. Already seen in Moscow it opens in the Lebanon, at the Linda Sursock Palace in Gemmayzeh, Beirut, before take off to Beijing, Shanghai and Tokyo through 2011, then to New York and Los Angeles in 2012. The exhibition will showcase around 100 shoe designs and trace the exceptional success of Dame Westwood’s career to date. Illustrating her defiance of the rules of wearability and convention, the exhibition is also evidence of her uncompromising quest for superb craftsmanship and attention to detail. Westwood’s designs are a result of considered and distinctive influences - 16th Century Dutch Delft pottery as the inspiration for her 1996 Toile Print Boot, British colonialism reflected in the Sahara Plimsoll of 1999, Victorian dandyism influencing the 1996 Trompe l’Oeil Boot and Westwood’s nurse inspired 15.5 centimetre heel Mary Janes of Erotic Zones a salute to S/M and fetishism. Her shoes have also gained a reputation and created memorable fashion moments - the tumbling of Naomi Campbell when wearing the Super Elevated Gillie on the catwalk in 1993, the Rocking Horse which became an instant collectible when it appeared in 1986 and her Pirate Boots, first seen in 1981 but remain popular and in demand to the present day.

Supporting Vivienne Westwood’s travelling shoe exhibition, DHL is the official exhibition logistics partner for the duration of the world wide tour.

Dr Irene Davis talks about shoes

2011-04-27T02:47:00.000-07:00

Shoe collectors: Caroline Cox recommends ebay

2011-04-23T20:14:00.000-07:00

Caroline Cox is a fashion historian, and author of Vintage Shoes and Stiletto. She began collecting vintage shoes as a punk teenager. Unfortunately not quite realizing the value then, of the easy pickup able collectables, she wore them until they fell apart. Now wiser she has greater respect for vintage shoes. According to the fashion expert she rates Salvatore Ferragamo’s experimental designs of the 1940s and Roger Vivier designs for Dior in the 1950s as blue chip investments. Vivienne Westwood 80s shoes are imminently collectable and Terry de Havilland’s seventies wedges are a must have for the serious collector. Caroline Cox believes there are plenty of bargains still to be had in second hand shoes. She recommends lots of research and swears by eBay as a great source for finding shoe advertisements and magazines and other images. The author highly rates Louboutin, Chanel and Manolo Blahnik for their great re-sale value and personally values shoes designed by Tokio Kumagai.

Fa-fa-fa fashion:Stiletto

2011-04-20T16:12:00.001-07:00

The Stiletto -- powered by TYPEF.COM

longest beutiful model fall maria lafuente runway

2011-03-26T16:41:00.000-07:00

Justin Bieber's Signed AND Worn Shoe!

2011-03-04T23:26:00.000-08:00

Charlie Chaplin eating his shoe - The Gold Rush (High Quality)

2011-02-25T01:20:00.000-08:00

Bata Shoe Museum, Toronto

2011-02-24T14:47:00.001-08:00

The Bata Shoe Museum for the curious

Shoe & Boot Making and Repairing Historic Book Collection on CD

2011-02-13T00:31:00.000-08:00

The history and evolution of shoemaking is a fascinating story. The Shoe & Boot Making and Repairing Historic Book Collection on CD contains 34 books which outline the history of shoemaking from its earliest days in ancient Egypt to the early 1900s. The collection covers fascinating facts about the manufacture and repair of shoes and boots, evolution of footwear styles through the ages and a variety of early 20th century shoe and boot catalogues showcasing the styles of the era. The CD runs on all Windows and Macintosh computers. (Web browser and Adobe Acrobat Reader are required - available for free download). The book index is organized in an HTML menu that is compatible with all browsers and the books themselves are in PDF format to allow them to be universally accessed. All the books are printable - either individual pages or the entire book.

Biodegradable Kicks

2011-02-08T02:00:00.000-08:00

Dutch footwear company, OAT’s have introduced a fully biodegradable sneaker in their Virgin collection. According to the founder and industrial designer Christiaan Maats, OAT’s mission is to connect people with their environment in an imaginative way. The biodegradable kicks are made from soft, breathable canvas and flexible cork soles embedded with seeds.The Virgin collection includes men’s and women’s versions, as well as unisex models in natural hues and classic lines. OAT will debut the Virgin collection in Europe come spring, with a limited 900-piece run.

Buy the shoes: See the show

2011-01-31T15:00:00.000-08:00

Richard Thomas Stephen Mear's Shoes

Shoe Charity: Re-use Your Shoes

2011-01-29T00:12:00.000-08:00

Re-use Your Shoes is a charitable group in Bucks County with drop boxes to collect donations of unwanted shoes. They accept shoes in any condition. Good, wearable shoes are passed to people in need. Shoes deemed “beyond wearable” are donated to Nike’s recycling program. Nike grinds up the soles of sneakers to make a material used for playground bases. Each month, the organization donates more than 6,000 pairs of shoes to local organizations. Beneficiaries include the Bethesda Project, a men’s homeless shelter in Philadelphia, and Laurel House, a sanctuary for female domestic abuse victims and their children in Norristown. Additionally, Libertae, is a program that helps women transition to the work force after overcoming drug addiction, receives dress shoes so the women have appropriate attire to wear to job interviews.

How to make a shoe Part 1

2011-01-10T03:42:00.001-08:00

Feet and Footwear: A Cultural Encyclopedia

2010-12-20T02:50:00.001-08:00

Feet and Footwear: A Cultural Encyclopedia. by Margo DeMello is a fascinating read and must for all interested in feet and shoes.
It is an exhaustive A-Z cultural encyclopedia covering all aspects of the human foot. A wide range of international and multicul- tural topics are covered, including foot binding, fetishes, diseases of the foot, customs and beliefs related to the foot, shoe construction, myths and folktales featuring feet or shoes, the history of footwear, iconic brands and types of shoes, important celebrities associated with shoes, and the types of footwear worn around the world.

Dr Margo DEMello is an anthropologist/sociologist who teaches at Central New Mexico Community College has also written Bodies of Inscription: A Cultural History of the Modern Tattoo Community.

The Warman’s ® Shoes Field Guide: New Book

2010-12-08T15:37:00.000-08:00

The Warman’s ® Shoes Field Guide is a pocket- size shoe collector’s price guide with 400 hundred illustrations of interesting 20th and 21st century shoes. To the best of my knowledge this is the only book on collectible contemporary footwear with a current pricing. Ashleigh is an acknowledged antiques and collectables appraiser and writes authoritatively about the subject. The book also includes sections on historical footwear as well as celebrity shoewear with shoe-related quotes liberally sprinkled throughout. As with all published material the estimated values are subject to change so the book has little real value to the serious collector but to shoe book enthusiasts, it is invaluable.

Shoes: Why kangaroo leather?

2010-12-05T04:36:00.000-08:00

From 1790 convict shoemakers made large quantities of footwear. Inferior bovine hides meant alternative were sought and from 1805, Kangaroo leather was used as a cheap and convenient substitute for kid leather. It transpired kangaroo skin had superior qualities of high strength, light weight and durability which made it ideal for finer boots, whips, gloves and eventually sporting shoes. By the mid nineteenth century there were many small tanneries established as the demand for quality kangaroo products rose across the word. As today an estimated 80% of kangaroo skin products went abroad. The native marsupial developed a special skin which it to survive harshest environments and against many predators. Studies conducted by the Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) confirmed kangaroo was one of the strongest leathers of similar substance. When split into thinner substances kangaroo retains much of its original tensile strength i.e. when split to 20% of original thickness kangaroo retains between 30 to 60% of the tensile strength of the unsplit hide. As a hide it is lighter and stronger than the hide of a cow (bovine) or goat. It has 10 times the tensile strength of cowhide and is 50% stronger than goatskin. Microscopically kangaroo presents with uniform orientation of collagen fibre bundles in parallel with the skin surface. By comparison cattle has complex weaving patterns with fibre bundles angled as much as 90 degrees to the skin surface. In kangaroo skin the low angle of weave running parallel to the surface of the skin acts like a rope gives the material exceptional strength. Because there is no fat within kangaroo hide the tanning process does not leave “voids” which can cause a reduction in strength per unit thickness. The hide also does not contain sweat glands or erector pili muscles and elastin is evenly distributed throughout the skin thickness. This structural uniformity explains both the high tensile strength of the whole leather and the greater retention of strength in splits. By comparison bovine skin is much more complex in cross section. Hence it has many more weak points from which tears can start when placed under tension. In addition when sliced into splits the collagen fibres running at significant angles to the skin surface are cut which further weakens structural strength. In Australia, kangaroos have never been farmed and hides are produced from free ranging wild animals. Today most species of macropods are protected from hunting by law. Most of the leather used today is a by-product of beef industry. Fifty (50) % is used to produce shoes, 25% to make clothing, 15% for upholstery and the rest is used to produce accessories.

The Australian Shoe Industry: Brief History

2010-11-29T15:27:00.000-08:00

Up until the end of the 19th century Australian boot makers continued to produce handmade footwear which by comparison to imported boots and shoes was very expensive (i.e. almost double). Australian made working boots would last on average one calendar month whereas the English boots were doomed by two to three weeks. Up until the 1830smost immigrants unable to pay Australian process ordered their footwear requirements for the year ahead from England. Cobbling (shoe mending) became an essential household maintenance in Australian homes. Higher wage claims (wages doubled between 1840 and 1860) saw a marked decline in the footwear industry in New South Wales with many of the work force leaving to join the gold rush. At this time British manufacturers tried to flood the Australian trade market but it was the Americans that prevailed. By 1858 new technologies had been introduced in the States which completely revolutionized the manufacture of mass produced boots and shoes. At first these were poor quality and scarcely lasted more than 12 days but eventually quality improved. American manufacturers over produced for their domestic market and became a major exporter during the late 19th and early 20th century. A spike came with the Gold Rushes (US 1848- 1855; and Aus 1850s -1890s). During this time the population of Australia quadrupled and the Australian market continued to be flooded with cheap US imports. Australian manufacturers found it difficult to compete until tariffs were introduced then they started producing their own footwear. The affect of American styles on colonial woman's fashion was profound and by 1894 the American shoes had replaced British footwear in the Australian Market.

John Lobb trained as a bootmaker in London before moving to Australia to try his luck in the goldfields. Whilst he never found fortune in gold he did strike on the idea of making hollow heeled boots for prospectors to hide their gold. The idea caught on and Lobb set himself up in business in Sydney in 1858. When the Great Exhibition came along in 1862 he sent a pair of his boots along and won a gold medal for their quality. Twelve months later he sent a pair of his riding boots to the Prince of Wales and was awarded a Royal Warrant. He returned to London and established a business " John Lobb, Bootmaker" which continues to trade as the world's most famous bespoke shoemaking establishment.
By 1870 bootmakers in Sydney were producing 15,000 pairs of boots each week. By 1890s the Melbourne manufacturers had converted to a modern system of mechanization and many Australian bootmakers began making children's shoes. (although Clarks of England had been exporting children’s shoes to Australia since 1842). A local concentration on practical footwear meant fashionable imports remained popular with consumers. Home grown fashion industries did try to become established but with little real success.
Making shoes is a complex business involving many subsidiaries and footwear operations sprung up in many metropolitan areas across Australia including: Ballarat, Geelong, Goulburn, Hobart, Perth and Adelaide. By the beginning of the 20th century good quality leather was abundant and many new Australian companies started making quality boots for farmers. The onset of World War, meant Australian boot makers went into war production mode, manufacturing footwear for the Australian military. Many of these companies have survived producing quality footwear for mountaineering and industrial needs. The First World War saw a massive demand for Australian footwear and by the 20s there were large Australian footwear companies with many hundreds of employees. During the Depression these firms went to the wall and in the wake came smaller boutique companies who thrived due to demand of an increasing population and the Second World War. By the 60s the entire Australian economy was expanding, fuelled by large scale immigration and technical and scientific innovation, as well as the increasing availability of raw materials after protracted wartime shortages. As the 80s and 90s approached there was a marked decline in Australian produced footwear and more dependency on imports from Asia. Currently local manufacturers produce about 12% of the footwear purchased in Australia with much of the production now done off shore.

Shoes downunder: A potted history

2010-11-28T17:08:00.000-08:00

Indigenous people seldom ever wore shoes to protect their feet. Most tribes were reported to go unshod but some from the Northern Territory of Australia and adjoining desert country did wear a primitive sandal to protect their feet from the scorching ground temperatures in summer. The sandals were made from tree bark had no uppers and were retained by thongs to the first and fifth toes. Not particularly robust, the crude sandals required to be replaced several times during the hot season. Ceremonial shoes were worn by aboriginal shaman and these included emu feather slippers tied together with a marsupial fur string. These were worn only during sacred ceremonies including ‘bone pointing’ rituals and revenge killing expeditions. The emu slippers left no footprints.

From the end of the eighteenth century convict shoemakers were very busy in the convict colonies and referred to in flash language, as ‘snobs.’ This may have been because captors and prisoners valued owning a sturdy pair of boots. The quality of hides available to the early colonists was very poor and although hides were imported from England these were usually damaged by mildew making them almost unwearable. A barefoot tradition prevailed.

Convict shoemakers produced large quantities of boots and made the best of available materials but not every colony taught shoe making. Prior to the convict colony in WA shoe makers were rare and this is echoed in letters of 1830. A lady of Perth wrote "… many respectable females with their children are going barefoot, not a shoe maker can be got to work." Convicts were sent to WA in 1850, primarily to swell the population and provide labour and skills. Some prisoners were taught shoemaking and as a result by the end of the nineteenth century WA had more bespoke shoemakers per head of population than any other state or territory in Australia. On release many convict boot makers became saddlers and in the outback census, of 1828, there was one shoemaker to every 236 inhabitants. Distance alone meant many horsemen (bushman) became skilled leather workers including boot makers.

As the Australian population increased with Scottish and Irish immigrants fleeing the clearances and potato famine many had traditionally gone bare foot and continued to do so in their adopted country. Boot wearing new comers to the expanding colonies paraded up the main street on a Sunday wearing the fashionable finery of top boots made in patent leather only to be only to be lampooned by the locals fully aware of the inappropriateness of their footwear. The average life of a man’s fashionable boot from the Homeland was approximately three weeks whereas Australian made boots might last a month. Second and third generation Australians were more likely to have access to better footwear but by this time, barefootness was almost endemic.

New Book: Manolo's New Shoes

2010-11-14T22:55:00.000-08:00

Manolo's New Shoes by Manolo Blahník , Suzy Menkes, Grace Coddington, Milena Canonero, Amy Fine Collins and Carlos García Calvo.

Manolo’s New Shoes contains more than 130 of the designer’s drawings collected into a book. Manolo Blahník writes and introduction and the volume includes contributions from some of the most prominent names in fashion: Suzy Menkes (International Herald Tribune); Grace Coddington (Vogue); Milena Canonero (Fashion Designer); Amy Fine Collins (Vanity Fair); and Carlos García Calvo (El Mundo). Manolo's New Shoes provides a fascinating glimpse into the creative mind of one of the best-known contemporary shoe designer.

Fashion blogs: Paradigm shift

2010-11-13T15:35:00.001-08:00

A new study suggests that women's passion for killer heels has caused them to receive medical attention. Researchers say that a fifth of females polled have ended up twisting their ankle or tearing a tendon when wearing their heels. One third reported falling flat on their face as a result of their heels, with many damaging their teeth and breaking their wrists. The poll of 3,000 women, found other injuries sustained in the name of fashion include broken ankles and twisted knees. One cannot rule out other contributory factors such as too much of the singing syrup. Despite the warnings of the shoe police the ‘killer heel’ continues to be popular as stores continue to promote the skyscraper heel trend. New kid on the side walk is the platform heel or ‘Sky Heel’ Shoes. The combo footwear is a fashion platform shoe with up to 9 inch heels. Their popularity is in no short measure due to those fashion slaves who worship at the feet of Lady GaGa. However celebrities are having far less influence than previously according to experts (?) who believe the power of by blog idols like Carine Roitfeld and Emmanuelle Alt , Kate Lanphear and Giovanna Battaglia take over. New style savants blindly follow influential fashion blogs like Jak & Jil, Who What Wear and Citizen Couture. The prominent bloggers are also magnets to designers and mainstream American merchants, who have built marketing strategies around them.

Sandals: A Biblical profile

2010-11-04T16:04:00.001-07:00

There is no surviving artefacts or descriptions of Jewish shoes from the period of the early Bible (Nahshon 2008 p2). However footwear does hold an important significance to early Israelites. According to the Scriptures, God gave man a ‘coat of skins’ to wear.

"...Unto Adam and also unto his wife did the Lord God make clothes of skin and clothe them..." (Genesis 21:3). Once the Hebrews acquired the art of tanning they used thick hide for sandals. The Biblical sandal was either leather or wooden footboards held to the foot with finer leather thongs Nahshon (2008).

The lyric in the Song of Songs (circa 900 BCE ) confirms sandals were worn by the high born.

"How beautiful your sandaled feet, O prince's daughter! Your graceful legs are like jewels, the work of a craftsman's hands.” (Song of Songs 7:1).

One of the earliest known depictions appears on the Assyrian Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III (circa 841 BCE) and depicts Jehu (son of Omri) bringing a tribute the Assyrian king. Jehu is prostrating himself in homage and is depicted wearing up-turned pointed shoes. These were fashionable with Assyrian royal families and may not be representative of ordinary shoes worn by Jews.

By the 8th century BCE concerns were expressed by elders as to the irreverence of decorated elevated sandals worn by young women. (Isaiah 3 16-20).

Later during the period of captivation in Egypt, Jewish slaves were taught the craft of Egyptian sandal making and took the trade with them. The fleeing slaves were wore sandals (Ex 12:11).

"This is how you are to eat it: with your loins girt, sandals on your feet and your staff in hand, you shall eat like those who are in flight. It is the Passover of the LORD.”

According to the Holy Scriptures Moses wore shoes when he approached the Burning Bush (Exodus 3:5).

"Remove your shoes from your feet, for the place on which you stand is holy ground."

This was repeated again, at the confirmation of Joshua as the new Moses.

'And the captain of the LORD's host said unto Joshua, Loose thy shoe from off thy foot: for the place whereon thou standest is holy. And Joshua did so.'
Josh 5:15
Possibly the first shoe miracle to be described was n Deuteronomy 29:15

“During the forty years that I led you through the desert, your clothes did not wear out, nor did the sandals on your feet.”
Hence forth footwear and bare feet took on major symbolic significance in the Jewish religion. These are seen in the Torah , (Laws of Moses) and the Shulchan Aruch, (Code of Jewish law) which was written in the 16th century. Every day event were to be seen as something to worship the glory of God including putting on sandals. The Jewish laws prescribed the order in which you put them on. The right went on first followed by the left. (Shulchan Aruch/Orach Chaim 2:4). The left shoe was to be tied firs and the whole process reversed when taking the shoes off (Shulchan Aruch/Orach Chaim 2:5). It is thought this custom was based on the belief the right side was more important than the left and subsequently the right foot should not remain uncovered while the left was covered. Shoes were tied from the left because knotted teffilin was worn on the left arm. This refers to the children of Israel being out of Egypt as an act of God. When walking outdoors, Jews were required to cover the entire body including their feet (Shulchan Aruch/Orach Chaim 2:6). By the end of the first century CE shoes were considered an item of sensuousness, comfort, luxury and pleasure. Rabbi Akiva (ca.50–ca.135 CE) instructed his son Joshua not to go barefoot.

In the Talmud (200CE – 500 CE) (Shabbat 129a) it declared "A person should sell the roof beams of his house to buy shoes for his feet, " which if taken literally would again underline the importance of footwear in the Holy Land. Scholars and thise well versed in Jewish Law (Talmid Chacham) were never to go out wearing shabby or worn out shoes. Much later the Kabbalists considered the body as "the shoe of the soul," to protect it during its journey in the physical world.

According to Nahshon (2008) the primodial connection of the naked or semi naked foot to the land became an important element of Israel’s Zionist pioneer culture. Walking barefoot symbolically intimated one of three states: the lack of social status, an act of humility, or reference to the Divine. A common punishment or judgment was being forced to go without shoes.

'At the same time spake the LORD by Isaiah the son of Amoz, saying, Go and loose the sackcloth from off thy loins, and put off thy shoe from thy foot. And he did so, walking naked and barefoot.'
Is 20:2

Captives went barefoot and their footwear was often taken as a trophy.
'And the men which were expressed by name rose up, and took the captives, and with the spoil clothed all that were naked among them, and arrayed them, and shod them.'
2 Chron 28:15

The Jewish custom of not wearing shoes was also taken as a show of remorse, penance or mourning (Book of Isaiah 20:2). In Talmudic times both the pall bearers and the mourners went barefoot. When David was in mourning he went barefooted.

'And David went up by the ascent of mount Olivet, and went as he went up, and had his head covered, and he went barefoot'
2 Sam 15:30

Jewish Law determined wearing leather shoes was not permitted during the period of the seven days of mourning (shiva,). For practical reason when shoes were allowed the custom was to place a little earth or pebble in the shoes to remind the wearer that they are in mourning. Jews are buried in a shroud covering the feet and the corpse id never dressed in leather shoes.
In the laws of halitzah when a married man died childless and leaving an unmarried brother, the brother was obligated to marry his widowed sister-in-law. This was called a levirate marriage and was primarily to continue the family linage.Deuteronomy (25:5-9); and Book of Ruth 3:4. If the brother in law refuses to marry the widow a ceremony involving the halitzah shoe was undertaken. The shoe worn on the right foot of the male was made from the skin of a kosher animal. It was like a moccasin made of two pieces and sown together with leather threads with long ties. The widow places her left hand on the brother in laws calf, then undoes the laces with her right hand before removing the shoe from his foot. She then throws it to the ground, and spits on the ground in front of him. The beth din then recites the formula releasing all obligations. Here the shoe is a symbol of transaction and reference is made in Biblical times to shoes and sandals being used to seal bargains.

Footnote
Human beings intrinsically used their bodies (or parts there of) as physical measurement of the known universe and so it would see perfectly logical to extend this to describe all human endeavours. The idea our ancestors described the universe with reference to the human body would give credence to the argument when describing faith there would be a head of a religious order; and feet, or the foundation of followers. This would translate into concrete iconoclasts as found in talisman of faith e.g. Statue of Christ the Redeemer, Rio de Janeiro. The absence of sophisticated transport in Biblical Times required walking as the primary means to spread the Gospel. By implication this would necessitate healthy feet and encourage protection of them. No surprise, perhaps to find reference to feet and sandals became closely associated with evangelism within in the New Testament.

References
Nahshon E 2008 Jews and shoes Berg Oxford.

The original History of Shoes

2010-10-23T02:14:00.001-07:00

Still available, the original The history of footwear first published on the Curtin University site. This is archived by Pandora Australia's Web Archive

Portraits & Voices: Shoemaking Skills of Generations:New shoe exhibition

2010-10-02T16:59:00.000-07:00

At the Museum L-A , Bates Mill Complex Lewiston, Maine is the exhibition “Portraits & Voices: Shoemaking Skills of Generations,” which elebrates Lewiston and Auburn’s history in shoemaking. The display which documents the history of shoemaking in the twin cities since 1824 includes a photo collage titled “The Many Faces of Shoemaking” featuring workers in Lewiston-Auburn’s shoe industry both past and present. Also on display are 52 framed portraits taken by Mark Silber. These highlight local shoeworkers and are combined with an oral histories recorded by Andrea L’Hommedieu. Auburn was one of the largest US producers of shoes at one time. Through photos and text visitors can learn the steps of making a shoe, welt-boot making, and about the “cottage industry” of shoemaking at home. Opportunities to interact on line are available and there is a hands-on area to explore the experience of selling shoes in the late nineteenth century. Inspiration for the exhibition came from Lewiston’s Adrien Jalbert who in the last century designed intricate machinery for shoe manufacture, the organisers have included a Young Inventors Contest to encourage locals to follow the same tradition. One of the popular souvenirs from the exhibition is a shoe last with an inscribed tag that will become part of one of the art installations. All proceeds go to fund exhibit-related programs and workshops. “Portraits & Voices: Shoemaking Skills of Generations,” runs until June 2011.

Espadrilles: Local heros

2010-09-06T12:42:00.000-07:00

Espadrilles (or jute soled shoes) are traditional canvas topped shoes made with the soles made originally from esparto grass, then hemp and later jute. The insolating properties of the cheap casual sneakers protected the feet from cold, humidity and heat . These could be worn all year round and were made as a form of cottage industry in Catalonia and the French and Spanish Basque regions. In the 14th century each town gave their espadrilles a unique signature. This might be a wider ribbon her, a thicker sole ; or extra crisscross at the back of the ankle, these regional varieties are still recognised worn at town festivals. Whilst mainly a peasant shoe the Espadrilles enjoyed a great vogue in the glamorous 30s and 40s when artisans such as Salvator Dali were seen wearing their white canvas shoes. In 1930, a good pair of espadrilles would cost two Spanish pesetas, (approx one cent US). During the Spanish Civil War (1936 - 1939), Republican soldiers were supplied with several pairs of espadrilles because they were cheap and serviceable. The sandals were considered so important to the army, factories were nationalised in 1938. When changes in local economy saw farm labourers move form the country to the factories in the towns and cities the demand for espadrilles fell and by the end of the fifties many of the local factories closed. The surviving factories continued to use the same jute braiding machines they had always done and by the 60s the once peasant shoe was seeling well again this time to holiday makers to the Spain. When Yves Saint Laurent was asked to design a red satin pair of espadrilles with gold satin ribbons in a 2-inch wedge for a fashion show once again the shoes caught the attention of the fashionista. More designers such as Christian Dior, Armani and Louis Vuitton took interest and there was a brief renaissance during the 80s when fashionable espadrilles enjoyed a short vogue. The Castañer factory has been in operation since 1927 and now creates luxury, high-heeled espadrilles for 15 designer labels, including Lanvin, Hermès and Christian Louboutin. Currently there are 17 Castañer boutiques in Spain, France and Japan. Their best seller “the peasant,” has sold eight million pairs alone. Castañer is held as a leading example of how a family-run Spanish shoemaking business can capitalize on traditional craftsmanship to carve an international niche.

Men in heels

2010-09-06T01:29:00.001-07:00

Now it seems both high heels and ballet flats (a slip on shoe with a small thin heel or no heel at all) are back in fashion for men. Height challenged males might revel at the prospect of the former but not perhaps at the latter. Ballet flats represent the antithesis of the four wheel drive shoes. That is shoes you could climb the Eiger with, but are more likely seen perambulating through the shopping mall. Real men prefer espadrilles and sneakers, i.e. chic and comfortable footwear. What has added interest (for me), as a shoe watcher, is both high and low styles share the limelight at the same time – a rare event in fashion. Zeitgeist (or sign of the times) necessitates we look at current events for an explanation. Alpha males appear to want to move adeptly as well as present themselves as trim and toned. Ballet flats resemble the dancing pumps or “pompes” of the 16th and 17th centuries when dancing became all the range and no self respecting crown head was without their ballroom. Then as now best finery was the order of the day and dandy noblemen wore special ballroom slippers. Emporer Napoleon's legacy to cultured Europe was dress balls and as the popularity of dancing swept through the civilized world. When new dance steps got faster women started to wear dance slippers every bit as delicate as modern ballet shoes. Men of the 18th century wore the latest fashion high boots and male dancing shoes were confined to the bedroom along with their pipe and became. They became bedroom slippers. The latest fashion phenomenon is likely to mirror the renewed interest in dancing and the immensely popular TV programs lik Strictly Dancing (ABC) and . Strictly Come Dancing (BBC).

New Shoe Exhibitions in New York

2010-09-02T16:46:00.001-07:00

The Albany Institute of History & Art , Albuny, New York will host two new exhibitions: “The Perfect Fit: Shoes Tell Stories” and “Old Soles: Three Centuries of Shoes from the Albany Institute’s Collection.” The exhibitions open on October 16, 2010, and close on January 2, 2011. “The Perfect Fit” features more than 100 examples of fanciful footwear created by contemporary American artists between 2004 and 2008. The shoes are made of materials ranging from clay, metal, fabric, wood, glass, and paper, and transcend everyday style and function to illustrate various themes pertaining to issues of gender, history, sexuality, class, race, and culture. An illustrated catalog accompanies the exhibition and will be on sale in the Albany Institute’s Museum Shop for $10.00. Accompanying “The Perfect Fit” will be a complementary exhibition entitled “Old Soles: Three Centuries of Shoes from the Albany Institute’s Collection.” The selection includes a variety of shoes ranging from a pair of brocaded silk women’s wedding shoes from the early 18th century to modern men’s and women’s footwear from the 20th century. The collection also includes protective over-shoes, pattens, slippers, jewelled buckles, work shoes, boots, and more. The Old Soles exhibition will be located in the museum’s Lansing Gallery.

Kenneth Coles' Simple Insole

2010-04-30T15:01:00.001-07:00

Kenneth Cole designs high heels which are comfortable. His Silver Edition New York range uses patented 925 Technology which according to the manufacturer are “the most comfortable high heel known to womankind.”

So what’s the secret ?

A cushioned insole (insock) or accommodative orthoses as it is more properly described. The insert which took four years to develop consists of a several millimeter-thin layers. The upper part of the insole (at skin level) is sheepskin which insulates the foot (keeps it at a constant temperature) in cold and warm conditions. Soft suede is strategically positioned to prevent the foot from slipping. Under the arch of the foot is a flaxseed pillow which readily adjusts to the kinetic foot in isobaric fashion. Poron foam TM has a good elastic memory and is inserted at strategic places to give added shock absorbtion. A thin layer of cork gives extra cushioning and the lowermost layer of the combination insole is made from flexible rubber for durability and traction. In the high heel models, the anatomical is raised by an impact-resistant nylon heel lift.

Now you know.

Problems with fit

2009-11-29T03:16:00.000-08:00

The concept of shoe fit is largely a subjective one. Size alone is not the only determining factor. Research from the Battelle Memorial Institute has shown there are at least 38 individual factors influencing or involved in shoe fit. Many of the 38 factors were subjective involving the opinion and attitudes of consumer and fitter alike. In the end it was the customer who determined whether the shoe fitted or not.

Asymmetry and anatomical variation mean many people are challenged when seeking an ideal fit. Both style and pattern of a shoe bear influence on sizing and fit is determined by the distribution of foot mass within the shoe. Heel height and toe spring are critical for functionality. Shoe types such as fashion footwear and work boots may be fitted with a bit more volume allowance than the slightly snugger fit of an elegant fashion or dress shoe. The type of shoe construction can bare an influence. e.g. welts, cements, slip lasted, stitchdown, injection-moulded etc, will show slight differences in fit on the foot. Some manufacturers or brands apply their own particular specifications of dimensions on their lasts e.g. backpart, forepart, tread, etc. and this makes a difference in fit among different brands on a given size. The foot fitted in the morning will be smaller than the foot fitted in the afternoon. Toe shape of the shoe may influence the fit. Shoes with narrower toes may need to be worn a half size longer (when available).

Further Reading
Belanger R 1997 Big black boots: how to pick the right size
Byrne M Curran MJ 1998 The development and use of a footwear assessment score in comparing the fit of children's shoes The Foot 8 215-218.
Ceeny E The form of the foot in relation to footwear The Chiropodist 304-311.
Foot Fitter Genovation
Gardener R 1856 The illustrated handbook of the foot London
Ledger FE 1985 Put your foot down: A treatise on the history of shoes Melksham: Coin Velton.
Manning JR 1966 Size standardisation: Europoint The Chiropodist 21:6 187-200.
Mondopoint: A metric system of shoe sizing and marking Australian Podiatrist August 1976 102-103.

Shoe width fitting

2009-11-13T14:45:00.001-08:00

According to Rossi (2000, p.202) standard width fittings were introduced in 1880. The ball width on the last determines ball width on the shoe. This measurement is not a linear side to side measurement across the foot but instead the girth which captures the volume of the forefoot. Several standard and width fittings are available in the UK size system to accommodate differences in three-dimensional girth. In women's shoes, A is the narrowest and G the widest. For children the range is A to H; and for men it is from 1-8. The girth increase between fittings is normally 6.5mm (one fourth of an inch). Most lines are only available in one size usually women's D and men's 4. The girth around the ball of the foot of the foot increases by 5mm for whole sizes up to children's size 101/2 and 6.5mm for whole sizes above this. In the American system it is two less, eg AAA is the equivalent to the UK A. There is no equivalent Continental width fitting system and the shoes are generally narrower than in the UK. In the American (or Standard) System the first number in the code represents the width (1 = A, 2 = B) The second number followed by a zero denotes the whole size: when the second number is followed by a 5 it indicates a half size. In the American (Arithmetic standard width measurement) this ranges from AAAAA to EEEEEE.

Reference
Rossi W A (ed) 2000 The complete footwear dictionary (2nd ed) Kreiger Publishing Co. Florida.

Shoe Size Systems

2009-11-12T01:44:00.000-08:00

The length of the foot is the most commonly used measurement but so too is the width of the ball when fitting shoes. Measurements for the last are more complicated with additional data such heel width, heel to ball length, waist and instep girth necessary to the fit of the shoe. There are several shoe size systems used throughout the world but the four major systems are United Kingdom, American, Continental (or Paris Point) and Japanese. Attempts have been made to introduce an international shoe size system called the Mondo Point but to date this has not been successful

UK Shoe Size System
The first description of a shoe sizing system was made and recorded by British genealogist, Randle Holme in the Academy of Armory and Blazon in 1688. The UK System starts from zero, at 102 mm with 8.4mm (1/4 ") between whole sizes (4.2mm between half sizes). Adults sizes range from size 1 to size 15 (equivalent to 12"). The UK Shoe Size System for children is divided into 13 parts. Sizes start at five inches long and every fourth part of an inch thereafter until, size 12. Size 13 or short 13 and consists of length of 8 inches and a quarter. This also starts the Adult size 1. Until the time of Queen Victoria, children's shoes were made as miniature adult shoes, with no special feature for growing feet. The children of the Middle Class in Victorian times wore shoe styles more akin to fancy dress which may account for why the design of today's shoes contain motifs which refer to previous ages and classic periods of history. Going barefoot is still within living memory and many children went without footwear as a normal practice and not through poverty. Work shoes were often handed down with the better off wearing them before passing them to siblings. It is not clear why a unit of 13 was used to judge a critical point between child sizes and adults. The origins of this remain clouded but there are several theories. It is understood early English shoemakers started with the smallest size (0 or 1) at four inches. Four inches was an easy measure to record because it was the width across the knuckles which happened to correspond to the size of a child’s foot need their first pair of shoes. By coincidence 4.22 " measured 13 barleycorns. The next easy measure was the span of the hand or 9". Measure across the knuckles (4") plus the span of the hand (9") gave 13". This measured the average length of a child's foot at puberty. Adult sizes would logically start at the end of the child's size. Another belief is based on a foot measuring practice at the time. Some historians believe shoemakers accepted 13 as the base unit for measuring feet. The shoemaker's size stick was twelve inches long with the units measured from zero. This meant twelve became thirteen. There have been several attempts to standardise measurements of shoes and adopt the quarter inch unit, however arguments have always failed due to costs and problems of changing to a new system. As early as the seventeenth century a "guild of shoemakers" had agreed on a common size scale based on a quarter inch rather than the third of inch. However little had changed by the nineteenth century and a shoe sizing system based on one-third inch, scale was still preferred. The barleycorn, for all its metrological shortcomings, continues to be used in both American and English sizing systems.

American Shoe Size System
The first shoe sizing system with detailed proportional measurements for lasts and shoes came from North America. The instigator, Edwin B Simpson of New York, prepared the first chart of standardised last measurements in 1880. This included shoe widths but it was another seven years before the Retail Boot and Shoe Dealer's National Association adopted the system. Much of the impetus to introduce a size system had arisen during the American Civil War (1861-65) where mass produced shoes were made in left and rights for the first time. As the main shoe manufacturers were in the North then orders for soldiers required a size system. To make it easier for the Army to order shoes for their servicemen, each soldier was allocated a shoe size as well as a nametag. Despite the availability of in flare footwear, these were not comfortable and many complained. The Confederacy fought barefoot. Right and left shoes were not commercially available for another half century. Although North America legalised the use of the metric system the industry did not adopt it as the only means. Regular reviews of regulation have meet similar non-compliance. Consequently there remains little standardisation of shoe sizes within the US. Ironically the industry continues to use Imperial measurements and each manufacturer determines how large a certain size will be. The only standardisation is each full size is 1/3 of an inch longer than the previous size. Women's shoes are marked 1 1/2 sizes different than men's (a size 9 women's shoe is equal in length to a size 7 1/2 men's shoe). In the American (or Standard) System the first number in the code represents the width (1 = A, 2 = B). The second number followed by a zero denotes the whole size: when the second number is followed by a 5 it indicates a half size.

Continental System (Paris Point metric)
The Europeans use a metric system and hence each full size (or two thirds of a centimetre) is less than a full size but more than the half size. North America is one of the few countries, which is still using imperial measurement whereas most other countries have adopted a metric system. Gabriel Mouton, a French abbot, first introduced the metric system in 1670. In 1801 after several modifications the French officially adopted the measurement system. The French system does not support half sizes. Infant sizes start at size 15 (equivalent to 0) and each size then progresses by two thirds of a centimetre. By 1875 several nations had got together to discuss adoption of the Paris Point System and whilst countries like North America legalised the use of the metric system, the industry refused to adopt it as the only means.

The Japanese Shoe Size System
The Japanese system is based on the length of the foot in cm.

Mondo Point
This was a proposed international shoe sizing system for last and shoe based on the metric system and incorporated a girth measurement. The idea was thought to have originated in Australia and was adopted by the British Shoe and Allied Trades Research Association (SATRA) with the intension of replacing the English, French, Italian and other size systems. Mondo Point provided a uniform system of shoe sizes among the nations of the world. The sizes were based on millimetres. Shoes were described as 255/98 or 255 millimetres long and 98 millimetres broad. Sizes progressed from the smallest to the largest, from children's through to adults without interruption. Foot size was determined with the person weight bearing. Although adopted by several countries the Mondo Point shoe size system has fallen into abeyance principally because it was not accepted by the US manufacturers. However it is still used in sizing ski and snowboard boots.

Bibliography
The Brannock Device
Rossi W 2000The complete footwear dictionary (2nd ed) Kreiger Publishing Co: Florida.
The true story of shoe sizes New York: Sterlinglast Corp 1977

Useful Sites
International-Sizes.html

The Shoe Stick

2009-11-11T06:43:00.000-08:00

A continual frustration for many who care for the foot weary is the absence of an international standard shoe size system. Although metrology and reliable measurements have been in existence for over two hundred years, the concept of shoe sizing is relatively recent. Shoe sizing systems based on standard metrological measurements have only been in existence for just over 100 years and shoes made in half sizes for only half that time. As part of the protection many craftsmen operated in early times, shoes were individually coded. Like a painter signing the canvas, shoemakers marked the inside of the shoe with their personal codes. This deliberately kept the size a secret from the customer and virtually ensured their continued loyalty. The remnant of which are still in evidence today with many manufacturers maintaining individual size systems. The first US record of shoes marked with sizes dates back to between 1860 and 1870 and the procedure soon followed in England. It was only full sizes recorded (half sizes did not appear until the late 1880s). In 1886 the Hanan Shoe Co. was the first manufacturer to stamp their name on their shoes. In 1888 the first fitting stool was introduced to the trade by Sollers Shoe Manufacturing Co., Philadephia.

The origin of shoe stick dates back to antiquity and were described in Ancient Egypt, Rome and Greece. Shoe sticks were used by shoe and sandal makers. For centuries each craftsman was free to use his own method of sizing. A common practice was to use parts of the bodies especially the hand and arms as gauges. For example an English yard was the length of the arm i.e. shoulder to fingertips or sometimes nose to fingertips. Troubles arose when the foot was used to measure land because everyone’s foot was different in length this eventually became a source of civil dispute when buying or selling land. In ancient Rome, the inch (which was one twelfth of a foot) measured the width across the (interphalangeal) joint of the thumb. By the 7th century in England, the barleycorn became a standard measurement with three ears of corn, laid end to end, equalling one inch. It took until the thirteenth century before the inch was officially sanctioned. Under pressure, Edward II (r. 1307-27) eventually succumbed to appeals from scholars and tradesmen to issue a decree to standardise measurement (Ledger, 1985). Henceforth an English inch was the distance measured across three barleycorns. Thirty nine (39) barleycorns laid end to end became a foot, and 117 laid end to end became a yard. Whilst the barleycorn decree of Edward II had nothing to do with shoe sizes per se, many shoemakers began to use shoe sticks. Tradesmen had traditionally used the hand span method of measurement, which preferred the quarter of an inch unit, but after the introduction of the barleycorn measure, many began to adopt the third of an inch unit. With 39 barley corns approximating the length of a normal foot this was graded Size 13 and became the largest shoe size. Other sizes were graded down by 1/3 rd of an inch or one barleycorn. It took until 1850 before the first uniform shoe stick using the English size system appeared. Ironically this took place in France and shoe sticks were not accepted in North America, until after 1900.

Shoe Styles

2009-11-05T14:14:00.000-08:00

Shoes are defined as footwear with a mechanism capable of holding the foot in the heel of the shoe and a facility to support the foot during the stance phase of gait. The two most critical aspects of the upper is a band around the instep and a section corresponding to the human heel. To prevent unnecessary movement these need to be firm and fit the foot. The variation of shoe styles is immense but according to Rossi (1993) there are only eight basic shoe styles with the rest variations on the theme. The eight basic styles are: the boot, the clog, the lacing shoe, the moccasin, the monk, the mule, the pump, and the sandal.

Boot
Any footwear extending above the ankle. There are numerous designs and types for a variety of uses and made from a number of materials. Originally boots were shoes with wrap around leggings and date back approximately 4.5 thousand years. Much later when the leather leggings resembled a bucket, the French called then 'butt' meaning water bucket. These evolved in ‘boute’ and finally boot. Over the centuries boots have undergone many changes and been gendered for their troubles. Boots as a fashion invariably follow war and represent coping with threat. Certainly the most contrived style is cowboy boots which have little to do with real Wild West and more to do with urban macho wannabes. The cowboy boot invokes heroic myth of the west, which promulgates rugged individualism, independence, quiet strength, and alienation from civilisation. They are a sign of authority and suggest strength by adding stature and stability. A boot's snug contact with pressure sensitive Pacinian corpuscles of the lower leg provides tactile reassurance while supporting the long tendons that run to the feet. Boots stabilise the ankle. Research has shown women find men in cowboy boots more attractive. Highly decorated boots express the gentler feminine side of the narcissistic wearer who may be rather superficial but always entertaining, if only for a short time. Boots with pointed toes indicate intense ambition. Whilst the suave and sophisticated sharpie may give out assured confidence and good humour that is as much as you are likely to get from them. The fashion for sharp toes can be traced to the resurgence of paganism and in particular a celebration of Pryapus. Men challenged by the absence of height prefer high heels. Wearers of biker's boots appear control freaks. No surprise there. This who sport elasticised boots may be free spirits who enjoy the simple comforts in life. Modern guys prefer the Yellow Suede, Hiking Boots, suppressed machismo, emaciated by modern day domesticity. Most will lack adventure in their lives but have four wheel boots to show they are ready (if not always willing). Doc Martens lacing boots are the mark of natural loners who may not seek close relationships. Many have leadership qualities with total commitment to passionate causes. The physiological benefits of boots may give the feeling of security on the street. According to Australian journalist, Jane Fraser, Ugg boot (sheepskin boot) is to the foot what Vegemite is to the tongue. What she might be surprised to learn is elsewhere in the global village creative souls designed for success but tired of convention, wear Ugg Boots. This makes them a personality, which is both unpredictable and capable of the unexpected. The fashion boot without doubt has given liberated women freedom style and support. Not to mention a lot of pleasure to men.

Clog
A thick soled (wooden) shoe sometimes with leather upper.
Clogs describe wooden soled shoes traditionally worn by peasants and more recently associated with Scandinavia. Two basic types are the sabot (or wooden shoe) and the more fashionable clog (wooden soled shoe with a leather upper). Clog wearers are considered complex and intriguing characters usually cool types with a strange and difficult past that will leave you better for knowing him. One clog devotee is Brian May of Queen. Once a cloggie then always a cloggie, or so it seems. Many men are turned onto clogs by seeing well turned ladies wearing them. Some are even attracted to the noise the clog makes. Hence there are a lot of closet clog wearers out there.

Lace Up
Any low cut shoe fastened by lacings e.g. Oxford or Blucher. Lacing shoes were introduced in the seventeenth century in England. At first they were thought to be rather effeminate but later took a fashion hold when fops at Oxford University wore them in the eighteenth century. The Oxford shoe became a foot corset designed to highlight the curves of men's feet. Worn tight to the foot the shoes were smaller than the foot and always with a heel. This meant the man minced which became accepted norm for real me. Corn cutting became a popular service during this time. It took until the nineteenth century before the fashion crossed the Atlantic and came with English invasion. This movement would influence adult costume for the next half a century. To accommodate broader feet Bluchers were adopted and lacing shoes become synonymous with conservative dress attire for both men and women. Patent Leather was developed in the thirties as a waterproof material for shoes. Now solid dependable types, stalwarts of community, wore lacing shoes. Not without its irony and despite their origins lacing shoes are classified as eunuch shoe for men, and sexless or comfortable footwear for women. The later is a euphemism for lesbianism. According to Rossi people who wear lacing shoes wish to voluntarily withdraw from natural concerns of sexual attraction e.g. funeral directors, paramedics, and nurses. Non conformists may wear brogue patterns or two-tone uppers indicating a psychosexual masquerade with the masculine costume smothering the peacock inside. Jack Kennedy was a man who preferred high fashion in footwear but conformed for his public image. Neuter shoes are neither sexy nor sexless neither fashionable nor non-fashionable. They exhibit a glimmer of promise at first inspection, but on a closer look are found wanting, i.e. an eunuch like quality. A conservative fashion with medium to low heel, semi-rounded toe, closed rather than open toe box. The colour subdued, the materials conventional and the ornamentation, if any, minimal. Passive styles for psychosexually passive people (Rossi, 1993).

The sandshoe which is a canvas Oxford was an invention of the 19th century and although had humble beginnings without doubt heralded the beginning of the most popular footwear of existence. Middle class preoccupation with sport and recreation meant sport kits included dedicated sports shoes. By the middle of the 20th century they became the icons of youth. Lacing shoes with attitude have become inseparable from youthful rebellion. Sport shoes are now perceived an essential part of ritual garb associated with both the best of being human as well as its darker side. From the time Jimmy Dean endorsed coolness, when he was photographed wearing tennis sneakers to MC Hammer rapped praise on his Adidas sneakers, the sporting Oxford has ruled supreme. People who wear sneakers are not too concerned with their looks but do prize comfort and security over anything else. Wearers of designer trainers are probably ambitious, motivated and driven in all their endeavours. Their materialistic outlook and competitive nature however puts them under enormous internal pressures. The carefree casual appearance of those wearing bowling shoes (a leather top hybrid) belies a passionate conversationalist who is intensely romantic. These people are often well travelled and strongly opinionated. Traditionalist too self-conscious to be really cool wears running shoes. These people are not part of the 'in crowd' but would dearly love to be. Large size, bold contrasts, and loud colours suggest youth and physical fitness. Often more theoretical than actual. Identification with team sports (especially star players) are preference for informality and comfort.

Moccasin
The senior statesman of shoes is the moccasin, dating back 15,000 years. The term moccasin originates from the Algonquian language and means foot covering. The Algonquians inhabited the region along the Ottawa River and near the northern tributaries of the St. Lawrence River. Although strongly associated with North American Indigenous population the moccasin was thought to originate from the Mongol tribes who migrated along the Bering Strait into North America (circa 30,000 BCE). Moccasins described a simple one-piece hide, wrapped round the foot and held on with rawhide thongs. Later they were stylised with fringes and coloured beads. Each tribe had their own distinctive style and decoration, much of which would depict rank and occupation. Today’s moccasin shoes (Loafers) usually describe imitation moccasins, which had their origins in Norway. The Norwegian Peasant Slip-on (or weejun) was first imported to the US by tourists in the 1930s and later Gucci made a leather loafer in refined calfskin with a metal snaffle bit across the instep. Slick, successful sophisticates flocked to wear them. The Rolls Royce of shoes celebrated craftsmanship, grooming and conformity but with just a hint of excitement. During the 30s loafers were available in the spectator style (two colours) and by the 1950s the Penny Loafer was all the rage on Ivy League university campuses in the US. Made in ox blood they were also known as the Norwegian slipper. The Low vamp loafer was designed for females and was made from soft kid leather and cut low. Snaffle decorations became popular and shoes were adorned with tassels and sometimes chains. The origins of tassels relate to prehistory and keepsake tokens taken from the vanquished i.e. testicles. Semi-precious metal chains would suggest affluence and by the 1950s younger people preferred a luck penny worn on the snaffle. Penny Loafers and Saddles Shoes reached their fashion peak during the era of Rock’n’Roll. Low vamp loafers were designed for females and made in soft kid leather. College kids wore suede loafers, which was the source of inspiration for blue suede shoes. Imitation moccasins are thought to represent sensuous shoes, typified by the stylised flair, slightly feminine but overtly masculine overtones and these shoes are preferred by the lounge lizard that is both vain and domineering. Charmers with intoxicating personality the shoe's exaggerated proportions and adornments give a clue to the wearer's true persona. On the positive side moccasin wearers value quality over trends and exude a relaxed elegance that is timeless and very alluring. These people are confident and comfortable to be with. They enjoy looking cool and revel in the good life. Beware bad lots who are attracted to square toed loafers these fellows suffer illusions of grandeur are often brash and certainly preoccupied with cash. Loafers for women are conservative or neuter shoes i.e. neither sex-attractive nor sex-distractive. Neuter shoes reflect a quiescent or semi-active libido preferred by middle aged married women and sometimes referred to as ‘comfortable shoes.’

Monk
Similar to Derby Shoes but instead of laces there is a cross over section to fasten the quarters together and held with a side buckle. The monk refers the style of shoe once worn by Alpine monks in the 15th century. When the fashion for Monks caught on buckles became most ornate. Sporting buckles of silver and gold was a true mark of social status and prosperity and definitely the prerogative of men. After the French Revolution, buckles soon became passé as boots took over. Buckles meantime became popular with women's shoes. They survive today in the more mundane form as fastenings for sandals and casual shoes worn by men and children. The monk style of shoe remains a male preserve and is worn by non conventional types assured in their mind their alternative retaining medium is an able match to the more predicable lacing persona. Men who wear peacock buckles are less sexually aggressive, more flamboyant, brazen, and ostentatious. Insecure types with a driving need for personality identity. However you should not be fooled by the flash exterior is superficial and under the surface is a soft caring side to their nature, according to Eisman (2002).

Mules
Mules or slip shoes started as heel less, quarterless slippers worn in Elizabethan times. Later they became associated with the boudoir and are the ancestors of bedroom slippers, and worn by women of distinction. Richly endowed with silk and velvet these were often heavily bejewelled or highly decorated. During the nineteenth century when Manet's painting of Olympia was revealed to the public it caused a riot. The reclining courtesan was seen playfully holding her foot half in and out of her mules. The implications were obvious to all. The shoe has enjoyed a short renaissance with Ath Leisure and became more popular in the US, post '9/11'. Realisation the shoe could be a weapon, combined with widely broadcast images of discarded shoes left behind as people tried to escape falling masonry had a major impact. Increased security associated with travel, especially by air, has given the mule a new lease of life. Mules are worn by pragmatists, people who enjoy comfort as well as fashion.

Pump
Heeled shoes with low cut fronts and usually no fastening. The plain
seamless pump started life as a heel-less shoe worn indoors. It was a slip on which did not extend beyond or above the vamp and quarter top lines, held onto the foot without a fastening, although later a wrap around strap like a ballet slipper was used. In the UK the pump was known as a court shoe. By the nineteenth century the slip on pump had become sophisticated worn by both men and women. A low front pump deliberately tantalised by exposing suggestive toe cleavage. When dandy Count D'Orsay introduced a pump style which was low cut on the sides to expose the curve of the long arch and the sinuous movements of the foot the shoe took on extra sensual components. The sensual trifecta was completed with the addition of higher heels. By the 1930s daytime shoes were neat and feminine-looking with oval toes and straight, high heels. The classic court shoe was an everyday basic but the new look slender heeled sandals with ankle and T straps in reptile skins, soft kid, and suede and satin were very much the desire of most. Shoes were immaculately presented matt fabrics were always well brushed and leather buffed to a high gloss. Strappy designs were more evident in the more elegant evening shoes. The straps were sometimes plaited or made of satin ribbon and crossed over like ballet pumps. Other styles were dotted with glitter and fastened with fancy gold, silver or diamante buckles. The sides and heels of the shoes were sometimes decorated with tiny gold flecks or diamante tips. Gold and silver 'Charleston' sandals were very popular and a ready accessory for eveningwear. Other shoes were covered with fabric to match a particular dress; alternatively dresses in plain velvet satin or chiffon were worn with patterned shoes, making pretty high-heeled sandals covered in eye-catching, glittering brocade. Hollywood loved two types of women's shoes i.e. the high heeled pump which always looked glamorous despite its inappropriateness to the many action scenes the heroines were depicted wearing them; and the thin strappy sandal as worn by Hayworth, Garbo and Davis represented a willing partner to seduction. Screen beauties rarely forsook these stereotypical props and when they did it became a memorable event. Being filmed in anything else could only add further charm to their existing persona. The origins of heeled shoes probably came from shepherds tending their flocks on steep mountainous country in Pre Hellenic Times. As trade spread across the Mediterranean the elevated sandal became a fashion vogue for rich and powerful men. Later elevated shoes were worn by actors and streetwalkers. The fashion heel for women ironically came in the sixteenth century after a short fling with platform shoes. Chopines were worn by Venetian women of substance both to celebrate the leg as well as (and probably more importantly) to display the sumptuous clothing of the times. Reported falls (or miscarriage) in pregnant women meant the platform was banned but cleaver shoemakers cored out the section of the platform corresponding to the ball of the foot. Ironically by stabilising the foot they created the first orthopaedic footwear or high-heeled shoe. Despite this the heeled shoe we know today could not have been made in the past, prior to developed lasting techniques used for mass production at the turn of the 19th century. Once heeled shoes became passé for fashionable women the style was still enjoyed by female sex workers, even after the Revolution. So popular was the style for heels among sex workers the French girls that immigrated to the US continued to wear them much to the delight of full blooded all American Males. Soon after the first US heel factory was opened. With the introduction of Hollywood came the need to depict visually heroes and villains, clothing took on a special meaning especially with improved cinema photography and the full body shot. Clothing stereo types included shoes where the heeled sandal represents the modern-day, Jezebel. This image was forever frozen with the introduction of the stiletto in the early fifties, which happened to correspond for many with the beginnings of a post war permissive age. High heels are seen as a rite of passage from girl to women. Blisters and sprains worn with pride in a similar manner to nickel allergies.

Sandal
Originally a slab of leather sole attached to the foot by thongs. Today any open shoe with an upper which consists of any decorative or functional arrangement of straps. Fashion sandals can be foot low to knee high, or with any heel height. Predominantly designed for simple utility or casual wear but have also become a fashion shoe. Sandals are likely to be one of the oldest and simplest forms of foot covering. Sandals date back many thousands of years. No one knows who discovered them and styles like the Stone Age sandal seemed to develop spontaneously in various locations. At first shoes were worn for ceremonial attire and decoration. Only much later was the shoe adapted for protection. As trade spread among Mediterranean countries sandals became associated with affluence but it took until the Romans before they became robust footwear, worn by the army. The trade of sandal making was almost lost after the Fall of the Roman Empire and only rediscovered in the early twentieth century when the heeled sandal was associated with Hollywood’s sirens. Now considered the sexiest shoe, the glamour sandal with its 'venez y voir' or come hither look is further enhanced by backless or slings back designs. The 'back interest', assures admiring glances from suitors whose eyes are transfixed on Nature’s beauty even after she has passed by. Sexy sandals are subtly erotic whereas bitchy sandals are flagrantly sexual. According to shoe watchers women wearing the former are trying to convey a message, which says they want to be noticed and admired as feminine and sensuous women. According to Eisman (2002), today's male thong wearers may appear crude but beneath this veneer lurks a gentle, wounded soul. Dreamers and hopeless romantics choose Jesus sandals to represent their soulful and gentle personalities. Rough and ready types wear sport sandals similar in the way suburban dwellers drive four wheel vehicles. New Age self assured types exude their inner comfort by choosing reflexology sandals.

References
Eismen K. 2002 How to tell a man by his shoes Pan Macmillan Australia.
Rossi WA 1993 The sex life of the foot and shoe Malabar: Kreiger Publishing Company.

Methods of Shoe Construction

2009-11-02T06:19:00.000-08:00

There are many ways to attach the sole to the upper but only a few methods are used in mass production. Shoes were traditionally made by moulding leather to a wooden last. Modern technology has introduced new materials and mechanised much of the manufacture. Remarkable as it may seem the manufacture of shoes remains fairly labour intensive. No matter the type of construction the first stage in construction is to attach the insole to the under surface of the last. Two main operations follow : Lasting describes when the upper sections are shaped to the last and insole. Followed by Bottoming, where the sole is attached to the upper. The process of bottoming will determine price, quality and performance of the shoe.

Cement Construction ((also known as 'Stuck on construction' (UK) or the 'Compo Process')

This method is used for lightweight and flexible shoes and the outsole is stuck to the upper by adhesive. Bonwelt is another variation with its distinguishing feature being a strip of welting attached by stitching or cementing to the top edge of the insole. The shoe is then flat lasted. This is not a true welt construction wherein the welt is attached to the rib of the insole.

Goodyear Welt

Used for high quality dress and town shoes, the top section (or welt) is chain stitched to the upper and insole rib at the point where it curves under the last. This is supplemented by a lockstitch out seam bonding the welt and outsole. The outsole is then sewn to the welt around the edge. Goodyear Welt creates heavier less flexible footwear and the process is regarded as the sturdiest of all shoe constructions.

Stitchdown (also known as Veldt or veldschoen)

A cheaper method used to produce lightweight flexible soles for children's shoes and some casual footwear. Here the upper turned out (flanged) at the edge of the last and stitched to the runner. In some countries it is known as 'veldt' and 'veldtschoen.' The technique is used for lower priced footwear.

Mocassin

Thought to be the oldest shoe construction this consists of a single layer section, which forms the insole, vamp and quarters. The piece is moulded upwards from the under surface of the last. An apron is then stitched to the gathered edges of the vamp and the sole is stitched to the base of the shoe. This method is used for flexible fashion footwear. The imitation moccasin has a visual appearance of a moccasin but does not have the wrap around construction of the genuine moccasin.

Moulded Methods

The lasted upper is placed in a mould and the sole formed around it by injecting liquid synthetic soling material (PVC, urethane). Alternatively, the sole may be vulcanised by converting uncured rubber into a stable compound by heat and pressure. When the materials in the moulds cool the sole-upper bonding is complete. These methods combine the upper permanently into the sole and such shoes cannot therefore be repaired easily. Moulded methods can be used to make most types of footwear.

Force Lasting (also known as Strobel-stitched method or sew in sock)

Force lasting has evolved from sport shoes but is increasingly used in other footwear. The Strobel-stitched method (or sew in sock) describes one of many force lasting techniques. The upper is sewn directly to a sock by means of an overlooking machine (Strobel stitcher). The upper is then pulled (force lasted) onto a last or moulding foot. Unit soles with raised walls or moulded soles are attached to completely cover the seam. This technique is sometimes known as the Californian process or slip lasting.

Shoe Lasts and Metrology

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"The close relationship between a man and his shoe maker was based on the shared secret of the client's measurements. The statistics of clients were never disclosed."

Most shoes are made to a last which is a foot model with dimensions and shape similar to the anatomical foot but sufficiently different to not be exact. The last accommodates shoe manufacture and to some extent influences it’s the final fit and shoe durability.

Last
Before mass production, the original shoemaker started the shoe making process by taking a footprint outline of the sole. A block of wood (last block) was whittled or chiselled into a wooden last from the print. In the beginning a last (‘laest’, Old English meaning footprint) was made from wood but now are made in metal or plastic. These are complex structures compiled from many foot measurements. The finished lasts is not the exact size and dimensions of the anatomical foot but instead an abstract representation with specific functions. It is usually deeper in the midfoot region with a sharp 'feather edge' where the upper surface meets the sole. The last is clipped along the topline (around the ankle) and is flared over and extended in the toe region. This provides shape and applies appropriate tension when the shoe distorts to contain the loaded foot. Lasts give a working surface on which flat leather components can be given plastic form. The physical dimensions accommodate the foot during activity and the last contains contemporary fashion and styles such as toe shape. To allow the last to be removed from the shoe they are often hinged around the instep. Modern lasts are totally unlike the foot with the sole of the last, flat in order to assist in manufacture. The last is the single most important element in the shoe making process. The last is made from measurements to ensure proper size and fit of the shoe which includes tread and shoe performance. Standard measurements include girth of ball, waist, and instep for given shoe sizes relative to the type of footwear.

Anthropometry
Studies show over 90% of people have different sized feet and the individual foot has an infinite variation of morphology despite this lasts are made to match as a pair. The concept of a perfect fit is not a reality. This is further complicated by the distribution or proportions of foot mass which differ with individuals resulting in linear measurement such as length and breadth of the foot as inadequate. It is also important shoemakers consider mass and volume if an exact fit can be afforded. To ensure a best fit, measurements are taken at strategic locations and the shoemaker uses both linear as well volume measurement to construct a shoe. The modern last is made in three dimensions although it is not a direct replica of the foot. Instead it is made with production requirements, in mind. The last maker may take up to 35 measurements before the model last can be made. A shoe fitter may concentrate on length, ball width, heel, topline, arch and instep. The shoe is expected to wear well, feel well, keep its shape with wear, retain its style character, tread properly, allow for reasonable foot freedom, maintain both foot and shoe balance, remain structurally intact. These features are not always dependent on the quality of materials or components, or the manufacturing process. The design and multiple dimensions of the last provide the basis for the above.

Measurements
The majority of measurements are volume rather than the traditional length and width associated with shoe fit.

Throat opening
The distance from the vamp point to the back seam tuck.

Length
The length measurement of the foot from the back of the heel to the tip of the longest toe.

Foot Girth
There are four girth and circumference measurements taken on a last. These are the ball; waist, instep and heel (back of heel to instep). Measurement requires careful assessment of the foot, which cannot be accomplished with the same precision as linear measurements. The modern last maker uses precision instruments to determine girth but the old shoemakers used the hand span to this same effect. Aspects of the foot were measured against the shoemaker's hand; the ball of the foot was compared to the girth between the thumb and the middle finger. The instep was measured between the thumb and the little finger. This method was subject to enormous variations depending upon the size of the shoemaker's hand.

Ball girth
This is the girth measurement around the ball of the last to determine the width and volume allowance inside the shoe.

Waist girth
The girth at the waist on the last.

Instep girth
The circumference around the foot at the instep.

Heel girth
The distance around the foot from the rear base of the heel to the top of the instep.

Recede Toe

This is the part of the last, which projects beyond the tip of the toes forming the rounded contour of the front of the shoe. A tapering recede as in sharp toed shoes increases the overall length of the shoe. In a poorly designed last the recede may encroach on the toes increasing tension on the ends of the toes. This may be referred to as tight lasting.

Heel-to-ball
This dictates the position of the hinge of the forefoot (metatarsal phalangeal joints) and the widest part of the shoe (across the metatarsal heads).

Toe Spring
This describes the elevation of the under surface of the sole at the toe to give a slight rocker effect to the shoe. The amount of toe spring (built into the last) depends on the shoe style, sole thickness and heel height. This is built into the last design and compensates for the stiffness of the footwear and provided a stress free take off into propulsion. The more rigid the soling material the greater the toe spring. Many shoes will also display a slight heel spring.

Tread
This describes the width across the sole under the ball of the last and it should correspond to the dimension of the feet. The tread point on the last represents the bottom forepart just behind the ball and in contact with the base plane.

Flare

This describes the curve or contour of the last. The swing is determined by the position of the forepart when the last is bisected longitudinally forwards from the centre of the heel arc. With inflare lasts there is an inward medial swing to the forepart and most modern shoes are made on an inflare last (banana last) because it is thought shoes are more comfortable. An outflare last describes the opposite with the swing lying to the lateral side of the forepart. Sometimes used in bespoke footwear for infants with diagnosed foot development problems. Straights last describe neither an inflare or outflare preference. The long axis of the last when drawn through the bisection of the heel curve describes two equal longitudinal halves. The normal foot has a straight axis and hence straight lasted shoes can be worn on either foot. Prior to the introduction of machinery to make heeled shoes it was common to have shoe made with a straight flare until the turn of the twentieth century.

The anatomy of the shoe

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According to McPhoil (1988) the structure of a shoe can be divided into two parts: an upper and lower (or bottom part). Sections of the upper are made up of the vamp, quarter, toebox, throat, insole board, and topline. The sections of the lower shoe consist of an outsole, shank and heel.

The Upper of the Shoe
The upper of a shoe consists of all parts or sections of the shoe above the sole. These are attached by stitches or more likely moulded to become a single unit then the insole and outsole are attached. The upper of the shoe consists of the vamp (or front of the shoe), the quarters (i.e. the sides and back of the shoe), and the linings.

Uppers are made in a variety of different materials, both natural and synthetic. Leather became the obvious choice because it allowed air to pass through to and from the skin pores (breath) keep feet at a constant temperature. The plastic properties of animal skins mould shoe leather to the foot beneath. The ability for leather to crease over flexor surfaces further facilitates the function of the foot. Ironically synthetics used as uppers display elastic properties, which mean shoe uppers never quite adjusts to the foot shape in the same way as natural leather. Synthetics are cheaper to mass-produce and are now found in most footwear. Synthetic surfaces provide waterproofing and most leather today has synthetic components. An alternative shoe cover is cotton corduroy woven fabric which provide lightweight breathable surfaces.

Vamp

The vamp covers the top (dorsum) of the foot (includes the tongue piece) and superior aspects over the toes. The toe puff is reinforced and serves to give the shoe a shape as well as protect the digits. The vamp is often made of more than one piece creating a decorative pattern. There are various types of vamps suited to different styles of shoes.

Quarters
Quarters are the complete upper part of the shoe behind the vamp line covering the sides and back part of the shoe. The top edge of the sides and back of the quarter describes the topline. In athletic shoes the topline is usually padded and referred to as a collar. The medial and lateral sections join in a seam at the posterior end of the shoe. In Oxford style lacing shoes, the eyelet section is formed by the superior part of the quarter (while the underlying tongue is part of the vamp). In the Gibson style the lacing segment forms part of the vamp. The heel section of the quarter is frequently reinforced with a stiffener to help support the rearfoot. In boots the quarter is referred to as 'top'. In the bal method of construction, the front edges of both quarters are stitched together and covered with the back edge of the vamp (Rossi,2000,p8). In the Blucher bal method the quarter panels are placed on top of the vamp, and the front edges are not sewn together. In comparison with the Bal method, the Blucher bal method permits the fitting of a larger foot girth by broadening the throat of the shoe.

A convalescent shoe (open to toe) is a variation on the Blucher method in which the lacing extends to the front edge of the vamp. In athletic shoes the vamp and quarter panels are often one continuous piece of nylon or leather with additional leather pieces added to reinforce critical areas of the shoe. Reinforcement added to the region of the medial longitudinal arch are termed the saddle if it is added to the outside of the shoe or the arch bandage if it is added to the inside of the shoe.

The counter is a component of the quarter that stabilises the hindfoot in the shoe and retains the shape of the posterior portion of the shoe. Counters are usually made from fibreboard or heat moulded plastic. Foxing (Rossi 2000, p68) is an additional piece of leather that covers the counter externally. Sometimes a counter will extend medially to support the heel and prevent prolonged pronation. In some children's shoes and athletic footwear the stiffener is extended on the medial of the arch to provide an anti-pronatory wedge.

Toe cap
Many shoes incorporate a toecap into the upper of the shoe. Toecaps are either stitched over or completely replace the distal superior aspect of the vamp and can be made into a decorative features referred to as toe tips. The toe box refers to the roofed area over and around the part of the shoe that covers the toes. The function of the toe box is to retain the shape of the forefoot and allow room for the toes. The height and width of the toe box is dictated by shape of the last used to construct the shoe. Certain types of non-athletic and athletic footgear will offer extra depth in the toe box.

Linings
In quality shoes the quarters and vamps are lined to enhance comfort and durability. Linings may consist of various materials i.e. leathers, fabrics, and manmade synthetics. The lining on the insole segment is called 'the sock' and may be full-length, three-quarter or just the heel section. Many linings are made of synthetic material and are usually confined to the quarters and the insock.

Throat
The central part of the vamp just proximal to the toe box. The throat is formed by the seam joining the vamp to the quarter i.e. throatline. The position of the throat line depends on the construction of the shoe, for example a shorter vamp and longer quarters define a lower throat line. This gives a wider lower opening for the foot to enter the shoe. The throat is defined by the connection of the rear edge of the vamp and the front part of the quarter. The location of the throat will vary with the design of the shoe. Because the vamp and quarter panels are often one piece in the athletic shoe, the throat is at the eye stay. This refers to the point where the lacing is attached to the vamp. The throat of the shoe dictates the maximum girth permitted by the shoe.

The Sole of the Shoe
The term sole derives from 'solea' a Latin word meaning soil or ground.

Insole (inner sole)
A layer of material shaped to the bottom of the last and sandwiched between the outsole (and midsole) and the sole of the foot inside the shoe. The insole covers the join between the upper and the sole in most methods of construction and provides attachment for the upper, toe box linings and welting. This provides a platform upon which the foot can operate and separates the upper from the lower. The insole board is necessary in shoes that are constructed using cemented or Goodyear welt techniques because it is the attachment for upper and lower components. The majority of insole boards are made of cellulose and are treated with additives to inhibit bacterial growth. Athletic shoewear will often have a sockliner, a piece of material placed over the top of the insole board (glued in position or removable.

Outsole
This is the outer most sole of the shoe, which is directly exposed to abrasion and wear. Traditionally made from a variety of materials, the outsole is constructed in different thickness and degrees of flexibility. Ideal soling materials must be waterproof, durable and possess a coefficient of friction high enough to prevent slipping. Leather has poor gripping capabilities and synthetic polymers are much preferred. There are also an infinite variety of surface designs. Extra grip properties can be incorporated in the form of a distinctive sole pattern with well-defined ridges. Alternatively they can be moulded with cavities to reduce the weight of the sole. These cavities need to be covered with a rigid insole or can be filled with light foam to produce a more flexible sole. In some cases two or more materials of different densities can be incorporated into the sole to give a hard wearing outer surface and a softer, more flexible midsole for greater comfort. Synthetic soling materials will off the physical property of dampening down impact levels (shock attenuation).

Shank

The shank bridges between the heel breast and the ball tred. The shankpiece (Rossi 2000, p154) or shank spring can be made from wood, metal, fibreglass or plastic and consists of a piece approximately 10cm long and 1.5 cm wide. The shank spring lies within the bridge or waist of the shoe, i.e. between heel and ball corresponding to the medial and lateral arches. The shankpiece reinforces the waist of the shoe and prevents it from collapsing or distorting in wear. The contour of the shank is determined by heel height. Shoes with low heels or wedged soles do not require a shank because the torque between the rear and forefoot does not distort the shoe.

Heel
The heel is the raised component under the rear of the shoe. Heels consist of a variety of shapes, heights, and materials and are made of a series of raised platforms or a hollowed section. The part of the heel next to sole is usually shaped to fit the heel, this is called the heel seat or heel base. The heel breast describes front face of the heel. The ground contact section is called the top piece. Heels raise the rear of the shoe above the ground. A shoe without a heel or midsole wedge may be completely flat. When the heel section sits lower than the forefoot the style is called a 'negative heel' .

Welt
The strip of material which joins the upper to the sole. Most shoes will be bonded by Goodyear-welted construction. Some shoes use an imitation welt stitched around the top flat edge of the sole for decorative purposes, but it is not a functional part of the shoe.

References
McPhoil TG 1988 Footwear Physical Therapy 68:12 1857-1865.
Rossi W A (editor) (2000) The complete footwear dictionary (2ed) Kreiger Publicating Co: Florida.